
Book_L 



iaUITO 



COPffilGET BEFOSE; 



AN INTRODUCTION TO HIGH 
SCHOOL TEACHING 



BY 

STEPHEN SHELDON COLVIN 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN BROWN UNIVERSITY 

AND INSPECTOR OF HIGH SCHOOLS FOR THE STATE OF 

RHODE ISLAND 

AUTHOR OF " THE LEARNING PROCESS," ETC. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1917 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1917 

Bv THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1917. 



AUG 3GI9I7 



©C!.A473256 



PREFACE 

The following pages have been written with the purpose con- 
stantly in mind of giving practical help to those young men and 
women in our colleges and universities who are soon to enter 
upon the work of high school teachers. The topics treated and 
the materials selected have been chosen with this object in view. 
The writer has continually asked himself this question, "What 
ought the beginning high school teacher most of all to know in 
advance of entering upon his profession? " The author believes 
that the prospective teacher should have some conception of 
what the present day high school is and what it aims to be; that 
he should know something about the pupils that he will meet in 
his classrooms; that he should have formed certain professional 
ideals and should possess certain ambitions, and that he should 
be acquainted in some detail with the problems of class manage- 
ment and of instruction. There is much more that is desirable 
but less essential for him to know in advance of his actual teach- 
ing. 

This book emphasizes particularly general methods of instruc- 
tion as they apply to the high school. It has not, however, at- 
tempted to treat under separate topics instruction in special 
subjects. This problem has already been adequately treated 
in Monroe's Prificiples of Secondary Education, and in John- 
ston's High School Education, as well as in many books dealing 
specifically with the various studies of the high school curricu- 
lum. The student preparing to teach in any particular field, 
should obviously acquaint himself not only with the general prin- 
ciples of instruction, but also with the details of instruction in 
his chosen subjects. 

This book has Httle to say about high school organization and 



VI PREFACE 

administration. These matters while of importance to the 
teacher, are the primary concern of principals and supervisors. 
Fm*ther, they have been extensively considered by Hollister in 
his books, High School Administration, and High School mid 
Class Management. 

The writer believes that all instruction should be definite and 
concrete, — that it should be accompanied by a wealth of illus- 
tration, and that it should issue in many practical applications. 
A helpful book likewise should possess these virtues. For this 
reason a large number of specific examples have been incorpo- 
rated in the text with the hope of giving point to the various 
facts and principles therein discussed. All of these examples 
have been taken from actual classroom practice. They have 
been chosen from thousands collected by the author, who during 
the past five years has visited scores of high schools and hundreds 
of classes. To this extent the book employs the "case method'^ 
of exposition, and to this extent, at least, it is the record of 
practical experience. 

At the conclusion of the book is placed a selected bibliography, 
through reference to which the student may be guided in his 
further consideration of the various topics discussed in the pre- 
ceding pages. By the use of this bibliography the scope of the 
book may be enlarged in any desired direction. 

In the Appendix have been included a detailed outline to be 
used in connection with observations of teaching in the grades 
and in the high school, and also samples of typical lesson plans. 
It is hoped that those instructors who wish to apply in practice 
with their classes the matters considered in this book will find 
these additions suggestive and helpful. 

The writer is indebted to many persons for aid in writing this 
book, but he finds himself under obligation above all to the 
hundred young men and women who as graduate students in 
Brown University, have during the past years worked as practice 
teachers in various high schools of Rhode Island, and whom it 



PREFACE Vll 

has been his good fortune to direct. The writer hopes that they 
may have learned something from him; he is conscious that he 
has learned much from them. He is also indebted to the critic 
teachers who have supervised the work of these beginners, and 
who have given him many valuable suggestions. 

Among the various books and articles that have been of great 
assistance to the author he wishes first to mention the writings 
of his friend and former colleague, Professor W. C. Bagley, and in 
particular his recent book on School Discipline. The book by 
Professor S. C. Parker on Methods of Teaching in High Schools 
has also been extremely helpful. Much of the material in- 
cluded in the following pages had been collected, some of the 
chapters written, and the remainder outlined when Professor 
Parker's book appeared. It w^as with much pleasure that the 
author of the present discussion found himself in substantial 
agreement with Professor Parker concerning many of the most 
vital questions relating to high school method. The writer is 
also indebted to Dr. Romiett Stevens, who in her monograph, 
The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction has fur- 
nished him with much concrete material and many important 
suggestions in regard to the question as a method of instruction. 

The writer wishes to acknowledge the material assistance 
rendered him by Mr. Wayne P. Smith, who has read the book 
in manuscript and has given him important advice, and by Miss 
Grace E. Bird, who has read the book both in manuscript and 
in proof, and who has been untiring in her help and criticism in 
the details of composition. 

In conclusion the author ventures to express the hope that 
although this book has been written primarily for the college 
student about to begin teaching, it will prove of value to the 
young teacher in the first years of service and also to the older 
and more experienced high school instructor. 

Stephen S. Colvin. 

Brown University, July 15, 19 17. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

The Nature and Scope of Secondary Education . . . i 
The term secondary education has broad application. — Sec- 
ondary schools of American and Europe when compared show the 
following essential differences: (a) The secondary school of Europe 
differs from that of America in the fact that the former is not a con- 
tinuation of the elementary school, (b) While the secondary 
schools of America are democratic, those of Europe are aristo- 
cratic, (c) The secondary schools of America offer a more varied 
program of studies than do the secondary schools of Europe, 
(d) The eecondary school of Europe is a fee school, while the sec- 
ondary school of America is generally a free school. — The high 
school is the typical secondary school in America. — The aims of 
the American secondary school are varied. — The trend toward vo- 
cational education in our high schools is pronounced: (a) While 
the American high school strives to accomplish many things, it is 
today turning its attention more and more to some form of voca- 
tional education, (b) This vocational trend is toward an education 
that is practical, but at the same time cultural and disciplinary. — 
Typical courses of study in the high school are: (a) The college 
preparatory and general cultural courses, (b) Pre-vocational 
courses, (c) Semi-vocational and vocational courses. — High 
schools are organized in reference to courses of study as follows: 
(a) High schools offering a number of separate courses, (b) High 
schools offering a wide range of electives. (c) High schools offering 
a few definitely restricted and highly organized courses of study. — 
The size of the American high school varies over a wide range. — 
Among present tendencies in secondary education in America are: 
(a) Part-time courses, (b) Continuation courses, (c) Evening 
courses, (d) Credit for home work, (e) The junior high school, 
(f) The junior college. — Conservatism is still pronounced in second- 
ary education throughout the United States. 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER II 

PAGE 

The High School Pupil 21 

The teacher must know the pupil. — The high school pupil is an 
adolescent. — The most important characteristics of adolescence 
are: (a) Adolescence is a period of mental and physical change, 
(b) Bodily development during this period is closely related to 
questions of hygiene and discipline, (c) Various instinctive 
tendencies manifest themselves with great strength. Among 
these are tendencies that center around sex, the so-called "mi- 
gratory instinct," the gregarious instinct, and the social instincts, 
(d) Youth is a period of intense, though often conflicting and fluc- 
tuating interests. At this time the vocational interest looms 
large, intellectual ideals stand out strongl}^, curiosity and invent- 
iveness are powerful, and the aesthetic, moral, and religious inter- 
ests assume an important place. — ^The enrollment in our American 
high schools includes pupils of varying social status, and decided 
differences in abilities. — The elimination of high school pupils is 
marked. 



CHAPTER III 

The High School Teacher 41 

The American high school teacher does not conform to any one 
type. — The preparation of the American high school teacher is 
inadequate: (a) The European secondary sthool teacher is trained 
for a life profession, (b) The American high school teacher re- 
ceives but a small amount of special preparation for his work. — 
The reason for this lack of preparation is due to various causes. — 
Agencies for training secondary teachers are inadequate but in- 
creasing in number and efficiency. — The salary of the high school 
teacher is comparatively small. — The success of the high school 
teacher depends upon various factors: (a) Success as measured by 
salary received, (b) Success as measured by the judgment of su- 
pervising officers, (c) Success as measured by the opinion of 
pupils. — Professional attitudes and ideals are important factors in 
the success of the teacher. Chief among these are the ideals of 
service, loyalty, and high achievement. — Summary of the fore- 
going discussion furnishes a composite photograph of the ideal 
teacher. 



CONTENTS XI 

CHAPTER IV 

PAGE 

Discipline in the High School. — Indirect Control . . 59 

The problem of discipline is of primary importance for the Amer- 
ican high school teacher. — As a rule, the pupils in our high schools 
lack a compelling motive. — In far too many cases the attitude of 
the home and the community toward the work of the pupil lacks 
seriousness. — The high school teacher must of his own initiative 
attempt to create the proper attitude toward school work. — In the 
best controlled class the problem of discipline is not obvious. 
Some of the causes contributing to this result are: (a) The 
smoothly running class is the class in which all of the pupils are 
doing rigorous mental work. In order to obtain this mental alert- 
ness, the teacher should observe the following maxims, — i. Begin 
each class exercise with vigor and promptness. 2. Strive to keep 
each member of the class busy during the entire period. 3. Have 
some system of holding every member of the class responsible for 
all that takes place during the class period. 4. The teacher must 
hear all and see all that is happening in the class all of the time, 
(b) In the smoothly running class the pupils are interested in their 
work. Interest is not mere entertainment; it is not opposed to ef- 
fort. Various interests may be appealed to. Some of these have 
been discussed in Chapter II. Others are the impulse to manip- 
ulate, the desire for excellence, the "property instinct," the in- 
stinct of rivalry, and the pleasure in physical and mental activity. 
Interest is more readily aroused when the attention of the learner is 
concentrated on the thing to be accomplished than when it is oc- 
cupied with the details that lead to accomplishment. Interest cen- 
ters more in the concrete than in the abstract. Interest is depend- 
ent not merely on the facts presented, but on the interpretation of 
them. Interest is stimulated to the extent that the learner is a 
doer. Interest in the last analysis is a personal matter, (c) In the 
smoothly running class the teacher is the master. 

CHAPTER V 

Discipline in the High School. — Direct Control ... 83 
The problem of direct disciplinary control is likely to arise at 
times even under the most favorable conditions. — Types of dis- 
ciplinary problems are: (a) The incipiently disorderly class, (b) 
The actively disorderly class, (c) The aggressively disorderly 



XU CONTENTS 

PAGB 

class, (d) The disorderly pupil, (e) The pupil in rebellion, (f) The 
vicious pupil. — ^Types of disciplinary control are: (a) Control 
through discussion, (b) Control through counter-attraction, 
(c) Control through regulation of the environment, (d) Control 
through catharsis, (e) Control through modification of behavior. 

CHAPTER VI 

DlSCrPLINE IN THE HiGH SCHOOL. — ^ThE FUNCTION OF PUNISHMENT I05 

Punishment, although the last resort, is often a necessary means 
of class control. — Punishment is of two main kinds, natural and 
artificial: (a) Natural punishment has certain clear advantages 
over artificial punishment, (b) Artificial punishment must strive 
to secure the advantages of natural punishment, and at the same 
time avoid its dangers and faults, (c) Artificial punishment must 
be a real punishment, not a pretense at punishment, (d) Artificial 
pimishment must follow the offence with as Httle delay as possible, 
(e) In cases of school discipline, artificial punishment should 
usually be administered by the teacher against whom the offence is 
committed. — Punishment has a double purpose, punitive and 
corrective. — Types of school punishment are: (a) Corporal pun- 
ishment, (b) Keeping the pupil after school, (c) Dismissal from 
the class, (d) Removal of privileges, (e) Isolation of the offending 
pupil, (f) Reproof, (g) Sarcasm and contempt, (h) Appeal to 
parents. — Important maxims of discipline are: (a) The teacher 
should always strive to enforce the control of his classes by indirect 
means, (b) If direct control is necessary, punishment should be 
avoided whenever results can be accomplished by other means, 
(c) When punishment is necessary, it should be administered with 
vigor, (d) Artificial punishment should strive to combine in itself 
all of the advantages of natural punishment, at the same time 
avoiding its obvious defects, (e) Punishment must impress the 
offender as having a moral implication, (f) The teacher should 
administer his own discipline as far as possible, (g) The teacher 
should frankly discuss his disciplinary problems with his superiors 
and colleagues, and ask for their advice, (h) The most effective 
form of punishment is social in its character, (i) In dealing with 
cases of discipline the teacher must act with decision and prompt- 
ness, but must make sure that he has isolated the individual of- 
fenders and that he knows exactly the nature of the offence, (j) As 



CONTENTS Xlll 

PAGE 

a rule it is not wise to punish the group for the misconduct of in- 
dividuals. 

CHAPTER VII 

Eliminating Waste in the Classroom 128 

The maximally efficient class should be the ideal of the 
teacher. — The causes of waste in the classroom are varied. — In the 
classroom the physical conditions must be such that the work may 
be done under the best possible circumstances. These physical 
conditions are concerned with the following details of equipment 
and arrangement of the school building: (a) The characteristics of 
the classroom, (b) The position and arrangement of cabinets, 
supply closets, demonstration apparatus and other illustrative 
materials, (c) The use of the blackboard as a means of in- 
struction. — In the conduct of the class all unnecessary work on the 
part of the pupils should be eliminated, such as: (a) Fruitless dicta- 
tion exercises, (b) Unnecessary copying of questions, (c) Profit- 
less requirements in written work, (d) Useless assignments. — The 
physical condition of the pupil is an important consideration from 
the standpoint of economy in teaching. It involves: (a) The prob- 
lem of mental fatigue in relation to school work, (b) The question 
of the alternation of periods of work and rest. — The mental at- 
titude of the worker has much to do with his efficiency: (a) The 
problem of the child's attitude toward his work is not merely a 
question of efficiency; it is hkewise a matter that concerns mental 
hygiene, (b) Dissatisfaction in the task is a serious menace to all 
efficient workmanship, (c) There are various motives that may 
vitalize school work. — Methods of instruction and of learning may 
be classified as economical or wasteful. 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Methods of the Class Period. — Testing the Knowledge of 

the Pupil ......... 151 

There are three fundamental methods of class instruction, 
namely, — testing the knowledge of the pupil, drill, and adding to 
the knowledge and technical ability already possessed. — Reasons 
for testing the knowledge of the pupil are: (a) The testing for 
knowledge holds the pupil down to his tasks, (b) The test for 
knowledge enables the teacher to determine the progress of the 



XIV CONTENTS 

PAGE 

pupil, (c) The test for knowledge serves as a means for review, 
(d) The test for knowledge serves as a basis for marking the 
pupil. — ^There is necessity of a properly devised and administered 
marking system. There are certain reforms to be made in the 
marking system : (a) In the first place we must find, if possible, for 
most school subjects an objective scale by which the attainment of 
the pupil can be measured both absolutely and relatively, (b) It is 
not only important to devise carefully determined objective scales 
for marking pupils; it is Hkewise necessary that the teacher use 
such scales as conscientiously as possible, (c) Every teacher in 
the high school should familiarize himself with such scales as exist 
for measuring achievement in the subject which he teaches and 
should use these scales; when no such scales have been devised, the 
teacher should attempt to set up measures of his own that are as 
objective as possible. — ^The outcomes of standardized marking 
have great educational value. — Standards of marking cannot all be 
framed with equal exactness and objectivity. — Important con- 
siderations in regard to the test for knowledge are: (a) The test 
for knowledge as a rule should be given as a class exercise, (b) The 
written test is generally more economical than the oral test, (c) 
Tests should be made as brief as possible in order that the major 
part of the recitation period may be given over to the more impor- 
tant work of drill and instruction, (d) Tests should not all be of 
one type. — Summary of the preceding discussion emphaszies the 
economy in proper tests for knowledge. 

CHAPTER IX 

The Methods or the Class Period. — ^The Nature and Function 

OF Drill 177 

There are conflicting opinions in regard to the value of drill. — 
Causes for a reaction in favor of drill are: (a) A better under- 
standing of the doctrine of interest, (b) The failure of instruction 
without drill, (c) The results of experimental education. — The 
laws of habit-formation are : (a) Repetition of the desired function, 
(b) Pleasurable consequences in the learning, (c) Attention 
during the process of learning, (d) Consistency and invariability 
of response. — The principle of excess activity in drill is to be con- 
sidered. — Methods of restricting the field of trial and error in 
learning are : (a) The teacher must present to the pupil an effective 



CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

copy. It must be correct; it must be clearly and definitely pre- 
sented; it must not be excessively dilBcult to imitate; it must 
arouse the desire to imitate, (b) The teacher must condition the 
environment of the pupil in such a manner that it will not be pos- 
sible for him to go widely astray in his learning, (c) The teacher 
must encourage the pupil to think about what he is doing and how 
he is doing it. 

CHAPTER X 



The Methods of the Class P&riod. — Economical Methods of 

Drill y^ ....... 199 

Aspects of drill that further or hinder learning are concerned 
with the following principles: (a) The elements that are empha- 
sized in drill must be associated in their proper order. Habits must 
be formed in the way in which they are to be used. The most in- 
teresting aspects of a subject should be taken up as soon as pos- 
sible. The less diflEicult elements should be learned before the more 
difficult. Difficulties should not be introduced until fundamentals 
have been mastered. Fundamental habits must be acquired in 
the initial stages of learning, (b) Unnecessary elements should not 
be introduced into a habit, (c) Habits must be formed in specific 
situations; they cannot be acquired in general, (d) There are 
definite limits to possible and desirable proficiency in any given 
habit or set of habits, (e) Drill to be economical must be individ- 
ual in its character. It should be in terms of individual needs. 
There should be drill groups distinct from the ordinary recitation 
groups. Drill of the individual pupil should not be at the expense 
of the class. Written drill is more economical than oral drill. — 
Maxims of economical drill emphasize the foregoing discussion, 

CHAPTER XI 

The Methods of the Class Period. — Adding New Knowledge 

Through Oral and Book Instruction . . .224 

The telling method ranges from the formal lecture on the one 
hand to fragmentary comments on the other, — Faults of the 
telling method are: (a) It is time-consuming, (b) It often gives the 
teacher a false idea of his skill in class instruction, (c) It lacks a 
permanent record. — The technique of note-taking involves the 
following principles : (a) Notes should not be taken in the form of 



XVI CONTENTS 

PAGE 

dictation, (b) The pupil should not be required to take volu- 
minous notes, (c) The pupil should be required to jot down the 
main facts of the lecture or oral discussion, and as soon as possible 
after the recitation write out in proper order these facts. — Advan- 
tages of the telling method are: (a) It tends to secure and hold the 
attention, (b) It is adapted to the immediate needs of the class, 
(c) It supplies the class with information that is more special and 
recent than that offered in the book. — ^The capable high school 
teacher must be superior to any single book or any collection of 
books. The reasons for the dependence of the teacher on the book 
arise chiefly from the following causes: (a) American teachers lack 
somewhat in initiative, (b) They have not been adequately 
trained in methods of presentation, (c) They are not sufficiently 
familiar with subject-matter. — Text-book instruction is a nec- 
essary aspect of teaching. — ^Text-books should be considered 
merely as aids in teaching; not as substitutes for teaching. — ^The 
essentials of a proper assignment are: (a) The teacher should know 
the book thoroughly, and evaluate it in terms of the needs of the 
class, (b) He should decide on the proper emphasis to be given to 
the various topics in the text, (c) He should give adequate time to 
the assignment, (d) He should make his instruction definite, 
(e) He should attempt to clear up those points concerning which 
there is likely to be difficulty, (f) The chief function of the assign- 
ment is to teach the pupil how to study. 

CHAPTER XII 

The Methods of the Class Period. — ^Adding New Knowledge 

Through Illustration and Demonstration . . . 244 
The teacher should give great attention to the problem of illus- 
tration: (a) To illustrate is to make clear, (b) The forms of illus- 
tration are varied, (c) Illustration involves reaction on the part 
of the pupil. — The teacher must clearly understand the nature and 
scope of object teaching. — Important considerations that are to be 
kept in mind in teaching by means of objects are: (a) The object 
may be brought to the pupil, or the pupil to the object, (b) The 
mind of the learner must be prepared to understand the object, 
(c) The pupil must be required to give back to the teacher in some 
form that which he has observed, (d) Care must be taken to pre- 
vent the object from confusing the idea which it is intended to 






CONTENTS XVll 

PAGE 

clarify. — Demonstrations are a form of illustration. — Cautions to 
be observed in class demonstration are: (a) The essential parts of 
the demonstration must be seen by all of the class, (b) The demon- 
stration must be a success. — Examples of illustration in high school 
subjects are to be found in: (a) Dramatization as a means of 
teaching literature, (b) Object-teaching in the practical arts, 
(c) Illustration through demonstration apparatus, (d) Illustra- 
tion by means of pictures, (e) Illustration through models, charts, 
maps, and diagrams, (f) Illustration through example, (g) Illus- 
tration through oral suggestion. 

CHAPTER XIII 

The Methods of the Class Period. — Adding New Knowledge 

Through Stimulation of Thought.^ . . . .274 
Reasons for stimulating the pupil to think are : (a) Thought i- an 
aid to memory, (b) Thought gives meaning to the mere fact, i^c) 
Thought furnishes methods of procedure, (d) Thought developed 
in one field of learning tends to give the learner ability to think in 
other fields. — Essential principles relating to the thought process 
are: (a) Thought is stimulated only when a genuine difficulty con- 
fronts the learner, (b) This difficulty must be real for the learner. 

(c) Correct thinking must be based on definite knowledge. 

(d) Correct thinking requires that the problem be clearly en- 
visaged, (e) Correct thinking requires selection and analysis. — 
Induction and deduction are the two fundamental forms of reason- 
ing. These two processes are different aspects of the same funda- 
mental tendency of the human mind, namely, — to treat particular 
instances in terms of general principles and to envisage general 
principles in terms of concrete examples. 

CHAPTER XIV 

The Methods of the Class Period. — Adding New Knowledge 
Through the Inductive and Deductive Development 
Lesson . .^ ........ 295 

The inductive development lesson is exemplified in the five 
formal steps of instruction. — The principles of these five formal 
steps apphed in a modified form to high school instruction are: 
(a) The mind of the learner should be prepared in advance to re- 



XVIU CONTENTS 

PAGB 

ceive new materials, (b) Pupils of all grades should know the main 
aims of the recitation, (c) Facts should be considered in their re- 
lations, (d) Generalizations should follow from comparisons, 
(e) Generalizations are valuable in proportion as they are ap- 
plied. — In the high school it is seldom possible to employ the in- 
ductive lesson in detail, and with strict formahty. — ^The deductive 
development lesson is the final step. — The deductive lesson pos- 
esses certain advantages over the inductive lesson: (a) The in- 
ductive process is often time-consuming, (b) The learner has 
slight opportunity to arrive at any scientifically valid induction, 
(c) Many of the inductions that pupils make are fragmentary and 
inconsequential. — ^There are several phases of the deductive 
development lesson. — The two functions of the deductive develop- 
ment lesson are to anticipate and to explain. — Inductive and 
deductive processes of thought are not always possible or de- 
sirable. 

CHAPTER XV 

The Question as a Method of Instruction .... 310 
The question is a vital part of the recitation.— ^he question has 
a three-fold function: (a) It serves the important purpose of test- 
ing the knowledge of the pupil, (b) It serves the purpose of mak- 
ing emphatic facts already known to the learner, (c) It serves the 
purpose of stimulating thought. — Common faults in the question- 
ing of high school teachers are: (a) The questions are not well 
phrased, (b) The questions are repeated or re-phrased, (c) The 
questions are asked in a hurried manner, (d) They are indefinite 
or obscure, (e) They are leading and suggestive, (f) They re- 
quire no other answer than assent or denial, (g) They stimulate 
only superficial and pseudo- judgments, (h) They insist on an- 
swers that cannot be readily given. — The essentials of a good 
question are brought out from the preceding discussion. 



CHAPTER XVI , 

The Lesson Plan 334 

A carefully prepared plan is a necessary part of the lesson. — 
The aim is the pivotal point of every lesson plan. In considering 
the aim the following topics are important: (a) The ultimate aims 



' CONTENTS H xix 

PAGE 

of instruction should serve to give the teacher a broad and generous 
view of his oilling, and inspire him to practical achievement. 

(b) There is a relative justification of practical, disciplinary, and 
cultural aims, (c) The nature of immediate aims must be kept 
constantly in mind, (d) Some common faults found in the state- 
ment of immediate aims are, — i. The teacher states his aims in too 
general and indefinite terms. 2. The teacher formulates aims that 
are beyond the understanding of the pupils. 3. The teacher sets 
up aims that are largely formal and obvious. 4. The teacher some- 
times sets up the same aim day after day. 5. The teacher at- 
tempts to realize too many aims in the course of a single lesson. 

6. The teacher fails at times to unify the various aims of the lesson. 

7. The teacher does not distinguish between an aim and a 
method. — The methods by which the aims of the lesson are to be 
reaUzed is the second essential of a well-constructed plan. There 
are several important principles to be considered here; (a) Like the 
aim, the method is often poorly thought out, and inadequately 
formulated, (b) On the whole, the most important characteristic 
of a good method is that it shall carry out in sufficient detail the 
aims of the recitation, (c) The method should give a statement 
of the most important questions to be asked. — The statement of 

the result is the third essential of a good lesson plan. — The pre^"*"*^ 
requisites of a good lesson plan are: (a) It is based on a compre- 
hensive and scholarly view of the subject taught, (b) It is based 
on a knowledge of the interests, needs, and capacities of the pupil. 

(c) It is based on a knowledge of method. 



CHAPTER XVn 

Supervised Study 360 

The teacher's function is broader than that of a hearer of les- 
sons. — Reasons for supervised study are : (a) The physical condi- 
tions of the home often make concentration on the assigned lessons 
extremely difficult, and at times practically impossible, (b) Home 
study tends toward irregular habits of work, (c) When the pupil 
is not directed in his work he often acquires blundering and waste- 
ful methods of study, (d) The learner is often given unwise aid by 
parents or friends, (e) Individual differences in capacity demand "" 
individual methods of help, (f) Recent investigations have clearly 
shown the value of supervised study. — Objections to supervised 



XX CONTENTS 

PAGE 

study are: (a) Supervised study does not promote self-reliance on 
the part of the learner, (b) It consumes too much of the teacher's 
time, (c) It imposes an additional expense on the school, since it 
requires a larger force of teachers, (d) It increases the length of the 
school day. (e) It necessitates additional school rooms. — Forms of 
supervised study are: (a) The unprepared lesson, (b) The general 
study period, (c) The divided period, (d) The double period. — 
Purposes for which the period for supervised study may be used 
are: (a) The period may be devoted in part or as a whole to a gen- 
eral assignment, (b) It may be used as a means of summarizing 
and fixing the lesson that has just been taken up in the class, (c) It 
may be used to habituate the learner in the technique of study, 
(d) It may be used in discovering individual needs and in giving 
individual aid. — Fundamental principles to be emphasized in the 
technique of learning are: (a) The teacher should first of all make 
sure that the physical conditions of the study room are such that 
the pupil can do his best work, (b) The teacher should furnish the 
pupil with an incentive for doing his work rapidly and accurately. 
(c) The teacher should insist that the learner begin his work 
promptly, (d) The teacher should require the pupil to maintain 
sustained effort until the close of the study period, (e) The teacher 
should demand that the pupil concentrate on his work under all 
circumstances, (f) The teacher should make sure that the pupil, 
before he begins the detailed study of a lesson, knows in general 
what the lesson is about, (g) The teacher should accustom the 
pupil to read a lesson over as a whole, before he concentrates atten- 
tion on various elements and details, (h) The teacher should afford 
the pupil an opportunity at the close of the study period to review 
the most essential details, and fit them together in a significant 
scheme, (i) During the study period, the teacher should emphasize 
the practice of recall by the learner, (j) The teacher should assist 
the pupils in making out an outline of those topics of study that 
contain important facts and principles with subordinate details, 
(k) The teacher should accustom the pupil to memorize ideas 
rather than mere facts; however, when verbatim memory is nec- 
essary, he should insist that it be exact and complete. (1) The 
teacher should impress upon the learner the necessity of looking 
for concrete examples and applications of general principles, and 
of interpreting isolated facts in terms of broader meanings, (m) 
The teacher should show the pupil how to use in the most econom- 



CONTENTS XXI 

PAGE 

ical way books for reference and collateral reading. — The indirect 
results of supervised study constitute one of its chief values. 

Selected Bibliography 3^3 

Appendix A . • • • 395 

Appendix B 4oS 

Appendix C 414 



AN INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL 
TEACHING 



INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL 

TEACHING 

CHAPTER I 

THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 

Broad Application of the Term Secondary Education. — 

Each year our American colleges and universities are graduating 
numbers of young men and women who intend to make teaching 
either a temporary or a permanent career. For the most part 
these graduates plan to secure positions in schools of secondary 
grade. Of these schools they often have vague, inadequate, and 
erroneous notions. To an extent the significance of secondary 
education is to them a closed book. Few could give an accurate 
statement of the nature of secondary education, describe its 
aims, or outHne its methods. Although this ignorance is most 
unfortunate, for it they are not altogether to blame. The term 
"secondary education" has such a broad appHcation, and is 
roughly used to characterize schools of such differing types 
that it is difl&cult in a brief statement to furnish any accurate 
notion of what secondary education impHes. It is the aim of 
this chapter and of succeeding chapters to discuss its most essen- 
tial aspects from the standpoint of the needs of the novice in 
secondary teaching. 

Secondary Schools of Europe and of America Compared. — 
{2L)\Th€ secondary school of Europe differs from that of America 
in the fact that the former is not a continuation of the elementary 
school.^ln America we commonly think of the secondary school 
as directly following the "Grades," or the elementary school, 



2 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

in which the rudiments of an education are acquired.," This is 
true for America, but not for Europe. There the secondary 
school is not a continuation and extension of the common school. 
It is a school by itself. The secondary school in France receives 
a boy at the age of six and offers him a course covering twelve 
years, the first five of which are devoted to learning the elements 
and in preparing for his secondary education proper, which 
generally begins in his eleventh year. In his earlier years he 
gains the rudiments of knowledge in the same school in which 
later he does his more advanced work, and this school is entirely 
distinct from the common school, which furnishes education to 
the great majority of the children of France. 

To the German secondary school the boy is admitted at nine, 
after three years of preparation either in the common school, or 
in the Vorschnle, a school definitely preparatory to the secondary 
school. Thus, except at the very beginning, there is no connec- 
tion between the German elementary school (the common 
school) and the secondary school. 

In England conditions are more in a state of change; but the 
oldest type of secondary schools, the so-called ''public schools," 
by no means public in the American sense of the word, are far 
removed from the elementary schools of the people. Schools like 
Rugby, Harrow, and Winchester, centuries old and established 
in ancient traditions, are even more remote from the masses 
than a,re the secondary schools of Germany and France.^ 

(by The secondary schools of America are democratic; those 
of Europe are aristocratic. — ^The Public Schools of England, 
the Gymnasia, and other secondary schools of Germany, the 
Lysee, and the Communal Colleges of France furnish education 
not for the masses, but for the classes. They are primarily 
designed to train the leaders of the nation. ( In America on the 
other hand the vast majority of secondary schools throw their 

^ In America the older endowed academies, of which Exeter and Andover 
are types, have some resemblance to the English public schools. 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 3 

doors open wide to all the children of all the people and urge them 
to enter. ^ There is no thought of educating the chosen few, but 
the ambition of these schools is to enroll all the children of 
^condary age. They aim to become higher common schools, to 
be in fact as well as in name "people's colleges." Each year 
more and more boys and girls of secondary school age avail 
themselves of the opportunity to study in these schools. 

(c) [The secondary schools of America ojffer a more varied program 
of studies than do the secondary schools of Europer—We often 
think of secondary education as dealing with a particular and 
somewhat restricted type of studies. If we form our ideas of 
the secondary school program from the school at which we 
prepared for college, we are likely to assume that the curriculum 
of the secondary school is definite and relatively restricted in 
content. We think of the foreign languages, both ancient and 
modern, of English, of mathematics, of science, and of history. 
We may know that in many schools some manual training is 
offered to the boys, and cooking and sewing to the girls. Few of 
us, however, have any idea of the varied and extensive curricula 
offered by many secondary schools in America. In this respect 
these secondary schools differ from those of Europe, which offer 
courses of study less diversified than those found in a large 
number of our best American schools, ('^his difference in the 
breadth of the curriculum arises largely from the fact that the 
secondary schools of Europe are aiming to do a few definite 
things in a few definite ways, while the secondary schools of 
America are striving to do many different things, often in ways 
that are not standardized or clearly formulated.^ 'Not only are 
the aims of secondary education more general and less definite in 
America than in Europe, but also educational control is less 

^ The vocational courses that are being introduced in ever increasing num- 
bers in our American high schools are cared for in Europe by special trade 
schools quite distinct from secondary schools, and enrolling a distinct class of 
pupils. 



V 



4 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

centralized here than in Germany and France, and is determined 
to a large extent by local interests and needs. Of this diversified 
curriculum of the American secondary school we shall have more 
to say in the next few pages. 

(d) The secondary school of Europe is a fee school j while the 
secondary school of America is generally a free school, — In Europe 
secondary education is not entirely at public expense as is gen- 
erally the case in America., Tuition charges for the most part 
are not excessive, but they are sufficient to make it impossible 
for many parents to send their children to these schools. In 
America not only is tuition free in the great majority of our 
secondary schools, but also in many towns and cities free text- 
books and supplies are furnished to the pupils. The poorest 
families can therefore avail themselves of the privileges of these 
schools for their children. 

The High School is the Typical Secondary School in 
America. — ^The free public high school is by far the most com- 
hion secondary school in America. There are numbers of private 
secondary schools, parochial schools, and academies. However, 
these latter furnish but a small percentage of the secondary 
schools of this country.-^ The great mass of children in America 
receive their secondary education in the high school, supported 
by pubHc taxation, and directly accountable to the community 
in which it exists. These schools are rapidly multiplying, and 
the attendance is showing a remarkable ratio of increase. Most 
of them have sprung up since the Civil War, and the last quarter 
of a century has witnessed ap unprecedented development of 
these institutions of learning. ( Today there are approximately a 
million and a quarter pupils in our pubUc high schools, about one 
to eighty-three persons in our total population. This ratio, 

1 In the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the 
year 1916 there were Hsted 13,922 schools of secondary grade, and of this 
number 11,674 were pubHc high schools enrolling nearly ninety per cent, of 
all pupils attending secondary schools. 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 5 

which at present is greater than that of any country in the 
world, is sure to increase decidedly in the next decade.^ , 

The private secondary schools copy in many ways tlie aims, 
methods, and programs of study of the public high schools. 
They differ principally from the high schools in the fact that they 
are fee scjiools, and appeal to a more narrowly selected class of 
pupils, /^hey are more aristocratic on the whole, and in this 
respect resemble more closely the secondary schools of Europe 
than do our free high schools. > Further they are generally not 
co-educational, and in this respect also resemble more closely 
the European secondary schools than the American high school, 
which is predominatingly but not exclusively co-educational. 

The Aims of the American Secondary School.-(^The most 
generally recognized aitn of the American secondary school is to 
train boys and girls to become useful members of the communi- k 
ties in which they are to live, in other words to promote good 
citizenship in the broadest sense of the term. ' This aim is so 
comprehensive that it includes all other aims that are ordinarily 
advanced as reasons why a boy or a girl should take a high school 
course, with the exception of the narrow and unjustifiable aims 
of mere self-advancement, and personal pleasure. 
[ There are many ways in which young people may be educated 
to become good citizens. The parochial and church schools 
emphasize religious and moral training; many of the academies 
_and private schools stress a cultural and disciplinary education, 
aiming to furnish their pupils with the graces of life, to give them 
an appreciation of the finer things in the civilization of the past 
and the present, to afford them a comprehension of some of life's 

^ The percentage of the boys and girls in our high schools compared with 
the total population varies greatly in different communities and in different 
parts of the country. In the state of New Hampshire, according to H. A. 
Brown, 87.4 per cent, of the children who graduate from the elementary 
schools enter the secondary schools and of these 55 per cent, complete the 
course (See The School Review, Vol. XXII., p. 145 [1914]). This percentage 
is much greater than that in many states, cities, and towns. 



6 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

fundamental problems, and to equip their minds to do effective 
work. Many of these private schoois consider it their chief 
function to serve as preparatory schools for colleges, technical 
\/^&chpols and professional schools. They measure their service 
to the community largely in terms of the number of boys or 
girls that they have sent to some higher institution of learning. 
There are other schools of secondary grade, some private and 
some public, that emphasize particularly the training of young 
people for some definite occupation. These schools are voca- 
tional schools, and their purpose is to give rather specific training 
for life's work. The so-called "commercial colleges" are exam- 
ples of private schools of this type. 

The Trend Toward Vocational Education in our High 
Schools. — (a). While the American high school strives to accomplish 
many things, it is today turning its attention more and more to some 
form of vocational education.— -The, public high school sets before 
itself all aims that lead to the making of good citizenship, with 
the exception of those that involve dogmatic religious instruc- 
tion; but it emphasizes to a greater extent than do the leading 
/private secondary schools preparation for a specific calling in 
life.^The public high schools are much nearer the great mass of 
people than are the pri^^ate secondary schools, and the people are 
more and more demanding that when their sons and daughters 
graduate from the high school they shall be equipped with an 
education that can apply immediately to the earning of a living. 

There is today considerable uncertainty in American education as 
to the way in which the vocational training of young people is to 
develop. Is it to be an important function of the high school, or is 
it to be given over largely to so-caUed " trade schools? " These admit 
boys and girls to their courses as soon as they have completed the 
period of compulsory education (generally at the age of fourteen) 
and often before they have finished the work of the grades, and they 
aim at Httle more than to teach these young people the essentials of 
the trade that they have selected to follow; If the trade schools suc- 
ceed in becoming the t3^ical and usual means of training boys and 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 7 

girls for definite work in life, the vocational phase of secondary educa- 
tion will become less and less important, and the high school will 
ultimately more closely resemble the secondary schools of Europe, 
setting before itself as its chief function the preparation of a relatively 
selected class for the "higher callings" in Hfe. ^ If the trade school 
finally estabhshes itself as the chief means for vocational preparation, 
the high school as the people's college, as a higher common school to 
which all children of secondary school age go, will not be a possibility. 
The development of the trade school as an institution apart from the 
. secondary school is in a way a menace to American democracy, which 
can best be fostered by having a free public high school to which all 
children of secondary school age shall go. , Here they can acquire 
common elements of culture, common ideals, and perfect themselves 
in basal habits of knowledge and skill, while they are learning at the 
same time those things which will be of direct and immediate use to 
them on graduating. 

(b) This vocational trend is toward an education that is prac- 
tical, hut at the same time cultural and disciplinary. — While our 
high schools are more and more introducing vocational courses 
they are not developing into mere trade schools. The courses 
offered are generally to be classed as pre-vocational or semi- 
vocational, rather than strictly vocational. In some instances, 
however, we find courses that aim to accomplish little more than 
to prepare the pupil for some definite and specific occupation on 
graduation. 

A careful distinction should be made between the terms voca- 
tional, semi-vocational, and pre-vocational. A vocational course of 
atudy aLcos to prepare a pupil immediately to take up some occupation 
in the community at graduation, and strives so to train him that he 
will have sufficient knowledge and skill to enter upon this occupation 
not as a novice but as a competent and qualified workman. This 
course aims to do little else. A semi-vocational course aims to turn 
out the capable workman, and at the same time to provide him with 
a more general equipment. The pre-vocational course of study does 
not aim to furnish skilled individuals for any calling; what it strives 
to do is to discover tastes and abilities in high school pupils, and 



8 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

further to give these pupils a fund of general knowledge and some 
elementary skill necessary to, or desirable for, certain life occupa- 
tions./ Expert ability in these occupations is secured by further study 
and practice after graduation from the pre-vocational coursfe. Manual 
training is work of a pre-vocational nature. It tries out aptitudes for 
hand work, and where these exist it gives the pupil skill in manipula- 
tion; it furnishes him with ideas of procedure in doing manual work, 
and it may inspire him with ideals of the dignity of such work, but 
it does not aim to make him, nor could it make him, a skilled ma- 
chinist, carpenter, or cabinet-maker. 

Typical Courses of Study in the High School. — (a) The col- 
lege-preparatory and the general cultural courses. -f-W\^Q there is a 
marked trend toward vocational and similar courses, the college 
preparatory and the so-called ''general," "academic" or cul- 
tural courses of study are the dominating factors in most of our 
high school programs.^ These courses are in many respects 
identical because of the general supposition that what most 
cultivates and disciplines the mind is that type of study which is 
still required by the majority of our older colleges for entrance to 
their classes and lecture halls. In these courses the foreign 
languages, secondary mathematics, with at least three years of 
English, some history and physical science, are the important 
elements. The college-preparatory course provides four years 
of Latin, and in some schools three years of Greek, but since 
Greek is no longer required for college entrance, and since it is 
elected by only a small number of pupils, it is offered less and 
less frequently as the years go by. In some of our oldest and 
most conservative high schools, as well as among those of the 
more ''progressive" type, it is not possible to study this lan- 
guage. 

^ T. H. Briggs has said in an article on secondary education appearing in 
the report of the United States Commission of Education for 1914 — "So far 
as the number of secondary schools is concerned, the great majority are 
undoubtedly continuing traditional activities without serious consideration 
of the needs of the pupU or of the results actually obtained." 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 9 

frhe general course differs from the college-preparatory course 
chiefly in offering as a substitute for the classics more extensive 
options in modern languages, a greater opportunity to pursue 
the sciences, and to stress such subjects as history and civics. J 
It differs from the college-preparatory course in emphasis and 
degree rather than in kind. Over three quarters of all high 
school pupils are at present pursuing the academic courses, yet 
not half of these will on the completion of these courses enter 
higher institutions of learning. 

A small high school in Rhode Island which aims solely at college 
preparation and general culture offers one course of study for all of 
its pupils. This course includes the following subjects: — English 
(four years) ; history (three years) ; Latin (four years) ; French (three 
years); German (two years); algebra; geometry; physics; chemistry; 
elementary science; drawing; and music. Various options are offered, 
particularly for those not prepari^ng for college. This school is typical 
of a large number of the better small high schools in New England. 

A large city high school of the strict "classical" type offers a course 
that has changed Httle in the last twenty years. It stresses Latin, 
Greek, mathematics and English. It preserves the best of the old 
traditions as to what constitutes an adequate preparation for college 
and for life as far as culture and mental discipline are concerned. 
Schools of this type are growing relatively and actually less frequent 
as our educational ideals and practices change in the direction of a 
more direct and practical application of learning to life. 

(b) Pre-vocational courses. — Schools that attempt to furnish a 
pre-vocational education are growing rapidly in numbers and in 
influence. They are for the most part a development of the 
'' manual training" high schools of two decades ago. They 
emphasize hand work, applied science, mathematics, and prac- 
tical courses in English; they offer opportunities to study modern 
language and history. In these schools are generally found com- 
plete courses in the domestic arts for girls, and in some parts of 
the country, particularly in the North Central and South Can- 



iO INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

tral states, courses related to agriculture and the arts particu- 
larly connected with rural life. In 1915 the number of secondary 
schools offering courses in agriculture as reported to the United 
States Bureau of Education were 4,918 out of a total of 13,922, 
while 3,999 offered courses in domestic arts and 3,013 in manual 
training. In many of the schools offering agriculture there were 
brief text-book and informational courses alone, but in others 
there were thorough-going courses of a distinctly vocational 
nature. =^ Though in some of these pre- vocational schools the 
courses in the manual arts, the domestic arts and in farming tend 
to be somewhat narrowly practical, it cannot be said that their 
chief aim is to graduate skilled mechanics, cooks, nurses, or 
farmers, but rather to develop in the minds of the boys and girls 
taking these courses a taste for mechanical pursuits, home duties, 
and rural occupations, at the same time furnishing these pupils 
with sufficient knowledge and skill to serve as an introduction 
to these pursuits,/ 

A large Eastern high school of a thoroughly pre-vocational type 
offers the following subjects together with the older studies, but not 
including the classics: — Mechanical drawing, carpentry, smithing, 
carving, modeling, turning, pattern-making, machine shop, shop 
mathematics, business methods, and applied science. In addition to 
these courses primarily for the boys, it offers to the girls sewing, 
millinery, dressmaking, cooking, nursing, and other similar subjects 
relating to the care and management of the home. In a Western 
high school the work done in the domestic and the mechanic arts 
takes on a more definitely practical trend, though it is hardly to be 
classed as strictly and purely vocational. Courses are offered in 
joinery, cabinet-making, concrete and cement construction, and the 
like. The boys have helped to do much of the concrete work around 
the school building, and have constructed cabinets and tables for the 
school. The school has purchased a forty-acre lot, and the boys are 
improving this for a playground and athletic field. In the drafting 
department two of the public school buildings have been designed by 
the pupils. The girls in the household arts course manage the cafe- 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION II 

teria and frequently serve luncheons and dinners for various school 
functions. The girls in the sewing and millinery departments often 
make their own costumes. 

(c) Semi-vocational and vocational courses.-^Wt have de- 
j&ned a semi- vocational course as one that prepares directly and 
with relative completeness for some specific occupation in life, 
at the same time giving a considerable amount of general cul- 
ture, "^he best example of a semi- vocational course is found in 
our commercial high schools, which make it their chief aim to 
train capable book-keepers, office clerks, stenographers, and 
typists, and also to provide their pupils with a considerable 
amount of liberal education. Such schools, therefore, include 
in addition to the strictly commercial subjects, courses in Eng- 
Hsh, history, science, some mathematics, and foreign language. 
To this more general type of work about haK of the total course 
of four years is devoted. 

A school of this type, just organized, offers the following: — English 
(four years); history (four years); civics; algebra, commercial arith- 
metic, rapid calculations; book-keeping; penmanship; correspondence; 
physics, chemistry, general science; French, German, and Spanish; 
shorthand and typewriting; commercial geography, commercial law, 
economics. To these are added drawing, debate, and practice in 
public speaking. A definite amount of work, a large part of which is 
of a vocational nature, is required, and there is in addition a wide 
range of choice among other subjects. No pupil can graduate from 
this course without having a considerable amount of general knowl- 
edge and culture. 

( In a number of commercial high schools a two-year course of 
study is offered that is strictly vocational in its nature.); There 
is no subject in the curriculum that does not have a definite 
and practical relation to the occupation that the pupil is to 
follow on receiving his diploma. .) In this two-year commercial 
course we find the best example of a high school taking upon 



12 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

itself the functions of a trade school. The total number of sec- 
ondary schools that reported offering commercial courses in 
1915 was 3,625. 

A number of high schools offer in their senior year a voca- 
tional course designed to train teachers for the elementary 
schools. Such courses were offered by 1,481 schools in 1915. 
These schools are found chiefly in the North Central states. 

Organization of High Schools in Reference to Courses of 
Study. — (a) High schools ojffering a number of separate courses 
of study. — Many high schools organize their curriculum into 
distinct courses of study, such as the "Classical Course," the 
"English Course," the "Modern-Language Course," the "Scien- 
tific Course," the "Manual Training Course," the "Business 
Course," the "Domestic Arts Course," or the "Agricultural 
Course." (AH of these courses have subjects in common, but 
they have others that are peculiar to the particular course in 
which they are listed. The pupil chooses early in his career 
which course he wishes to follow, and after he has entered upon 
any one of these courses it becomes increasingly difficult as he 
progresses to change over to another course. 

(b) High schools ofering a wide range of electives. — ^Another 
type of school offers an equally wide range of subjects, but these 
are not specifically grouped into definite courses, and relatively 
free election under direction and advice is permitted, unless the 
pupil is preparing to take up on graduation some activity of a 
very specific and definite nature, in which case his election of 
subjects will be strictly determined by his future needs. 

(c) High schools ofering a few, definitely restricted, and highly 
organized courses of study. — In this third type of school a par- 
ticular group of subjects is taught to the relative exclusion of 
others. We have, for example, Classical High Schools, Tech- 
nical High Schools, Commercial High Schools, and Agricultural 
High Schools. Schools of this type usually develop in large 
centers of population, or in communities engaged in a rather 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 13 

narrow set of activities. There is a tendency in these schools, 
especially in those that emphasize largely vocational needs, to 
offer a narrow curriculum, and one too little concerned with 
general culture. 

It has been urged that schools which offer combined courses of 
study are better adapted to the needs of our American life for the 
reasons, (i) that combined courses are more economical and avoid 
unnecessary duplication; (2) that they keep interest in public educa- 
tion a unit and prevent antagonisms in a community among those 
who emphasize different educational values; (3) that they offer boys 
and girls who desire vocational training the more liberal training pro- 
vided by the general course; (4) and chiefly that they bring together 
children from various strata of society, offer them a common train- 
ing, and instill in them the same essential ideals, a matter of no small 
importance in a democracy. 

The Size of the American High School. — It is difficult to 
describe briefly the American high school in terms of its aim and 
its course of study; it is even more difl&cult to describe it from 
the standpoint of its size. Here the range is great. On the one 
hand we have the numerous one, two, and three teacher high 
schools, generally situated in small rural communities, and 
poorly housed and equipped, and on the other hand the large 
city high school, sometimes with hundreds of teachers, and 
thousands of pupils, splendidly housed and magnificently 
equipped. 

An example of a school of the latter type is the Washington Irving 
High School in New York City. The school building cost one mil- 
lion, two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. It contains among other 
things a number of seven-room model apartments in connection with 
the courses in household arts; it has a conservatory on the roof for 
instruction in botany; cages for animals borrowed from the zoo; a 
laundry plant; a bookbinding plant; a banking department; several 
large rooms with two hundred sewing machines; tj^Dewriting rooms; 
a classroom with a department store for the study of salesmanship. 



14 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

It cares for six thousand pupils, and has three hundred instructors 
on its faculty. 

The one, two, and three teacher high schools are the most 
frequent; they also enroll a greater number of pupils than do 
the medium sized and large high schools. One of the important 
problems of secondary education is to strengthen these smaller 
schools. In some instances they are given state aid. Another 
movement toward making them more efficient is to consolidate 
these weaker schools into a larger and better central school. 
When this is done we find in many rural communities, town- 
ship, and in some instances county high schools that have taken 
the place of the local high schools, and that have modern build- 
ings, substantial equipment, and trained teachers. In other 
localities efforts have been made to induce communities sup- 
porting these small and inadequate schools to cut down their 
course of study from four to two years, and to provide for the 
education of the boys and girls beyond the tenth grade by send- 
ing them to a large neighboring high school at the expense of the 
community in which these pupils live. 

Present Tendencies in Secondary Education in Amer- 
ica. — (a) Fart-time courses. — ^At present, secondary education in 
America is undergoing marked changes, and it is difficult to 
predict what will occur to modify it in the next few decades. 
We have already mentioned the marked trend toward voca- 
tional education.-^ In connection with this movement there 
have been introduced in a number of our technical high schools 
so-called "part-time" courses that are largely of a narrowly 
vocational nature, though they do not entirely exclude more 
liberal studies. These courses give the boy a chance to spend 

^ "Reorganizing high schools to meet the needs of all the people chiefly 
through vocational subjects," is the note that runs through the report of the 
high school authorities in practically all the States. (Report of the United 
States Commissioner of Education for 1914.) 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 5 

part of his time in the high school, and a part in the shops of 
some local industry in the capacity of an apprentice. 

This plan was first worked out in the University of Cincinnati in 
connection with the engineering school, but has been taken up by a 
number of important secondary schools particularly in Cincinnati, 
Beverly and Fitchburg. According to the Fitchburg plan, which is 
typical, the first year the boy spends all of his time in the school, and 
the next three years, partly in the school and partly in some local 
shop. Under this scheme he works alternately one week in the 
school and one week in the shop. He is associated with another boy 
whose work is so arranged that the week the first boy is in the school 
the second boy is in the shop engaged in the work that the first boy 
has left on going back to the school. Boys are paid for their work in 
the shops. They can work also during vacations. 

(b) Continuation courses. — Continuation courses, which are 
common in Europe, are being introduced into some of our 
American high schools, and are closely connected with voca- 
tional training. 

Such a course was established in Cincinnati in 1909. Under this 
plan apprentices in the city shops attend school one half-day a week 
without loss of pay. They study drawing, shop problems, mechanics, 
applied mathematics, industrial reading, composition and civics. 
The teacher assists the boys in the shops two half -days a week. 

(c) Evening courses. — The evening high school has been an 
integral part of American education for many years, but it is 
growing in influence, efficiency, and extent with the develop- 
ment of the vocational tendencies in our public education. It 
is a part of the general movement to make a wider use of our 
school plant, and to give opportunities for all who desire to 
secure a better preparation for life. This movement began in 
the elementary school, but has extended beyond the high school 
into many of our best universities and colleges. 



1 6 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(d) Credit for home work. — In the attempt to bring the work 
of the classroom more closely into relation with life, schools 
are recognizing activities not strictly connected with the cur- 
riculum as being worthy of credit as a part of the education of 
the boy and girl. Credit for home work has found its way from 
the elementary school to the high school in a number of locali- 
ties. 

- For example, the high school at Santa Monica, California, gives two 
credits out of the sixteen required for graduation for work done at 
home. Credits are allowed for farm work of various sorts, household 
duties, work in local trades and industries, carrying a paper route, 
and for correct personal habits, such as sleeping in the open air, re- 
tiring at ten o'clock, taking a cold bath, and walking three miles a 
day. Credit is granted also for taking music lesspns, playing golf and 
tennis, swimming, and summer vacation travel with a written descrip- 
tion submitted to the teacher. A similar arrangement exists in the 
St. Cloud, Minnesota, High School. Over fifty high schools in Ne- 
braska and neighboring states give credit for work done at home in 
household occupations. 

(e) The ^^ Junior High School. ''^ — One of the most important 
movements in high school education in recent years is the or- 
ganization of so-called intermediate,, schools, or .junior high 
schools, as they are more commonly named. Under this plan 
the elementary education of the child ends with the completion 
of the sixth grade, and in the immediately following grades 
work of secondary character is introduced. There are various 
forms which this movement is taking, but in general the seventh 
and eighth, or the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades are sepa- 
rated from the elementary school and reorganized by offering 
some elective subjects to provide for individual tastes and dif- 
ferences. To accompUsh this a number of pre- vocational studies 
are introduced, and some of the standard high school subjects, 
such as a foreign language and algebra, are added. Generally 
departmental teaching takes the place of the room teaching 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 7 

of the grades. The work in the junior high school is followed 
by a course in the senior high school. Thus under this plan 
the entire period of secondary education covers six years. In 
some instances the junior high school is found in the same 
building with the elementary school, while in other instances it 
is separately housed or under the same roof with the senior 
high school. 

Among the reasons advanced for the organization of junior high 
schools the following are the most important: (i) The earlier be- 
ginning of secondary education than at present is the custom in 
America is more in accord ^vith the practice of European schools and 
with the needs of child nature; (2) it makes the transition from ele- 
mentary to secondary education less abrupt; (3) it keeps pupils longer 
in school; (4) it furnishes an opportunity to provide for individual 
tastes and differences among children at an earlier age than is possible 
under our present system; (5) it allows the earlier introduction of 
such subjects as foreign language, high school mathematics and pre- 
vocational studies; (6) it avoids the waste connected with the last 
two years of the elementary school program, which contains much 
unnecessary review, and which emphasizes far beyond any actual 
need the formal aspects of English and arithmetic. 

The movement for the junior high school was first started in the 
United States about ten years ago and during the last decade it has 
been put into operation in a number of important school systems 
throughout the country. According to Briggs, who outlines the status 
of the junior high school in the report of the United States Commis- 
sioner of Education for 1914,^ one hundred and sixty-seven cities 
reported that they had one or more junior high schools in operation 
in some of its forms, although over half of this number do not satisfy 
the details in many particulars. 

(f) The ^^ Junior College^ — In various parts of the country, 
notably in California, the high school has extended its work up 
toward the college as well as down toward the elementary school. 

iVol. I, pp. 135-157. 



1 8 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

This upward tendency has given rise to the "junior college" 
in which the equivalent of two years of college work is furnished 
in the high school in a graduate course. Pupils are thus encour- 
aged to continue their studies beyond the normal period of high 
school education, and under proper conditions are admitted to 
college as juniors at the completion of the high school course. 

Conservatism Still Pronounced in Secondary Education 
Throughout the United States. — In following the discussion 
in regard to the changing aspects of secondary education the 
reader may have formed the impression that great uncertainty 
and diversity exist in regard to high school aims and methods. 
This is true, however, only to a degree. Many reforms have 
been advocated, but only the less radical have been put into 
practice to any considerable extent. As has already been pointed 
out the older and more conservative t3^e of secondary educa- 
tion still dominates the situation. Nevertheless the movement, 
already well under way, to make the high school of greater 
service to the community that supports it, as well as of greater 
practical value to the pupil and more suited to his needs, wiU 
continue to grow in force. ^ The young teacher who enters the 

^The experiment in secondary education about to be undertaken at 
Teachers College, Columbia University, is a most important step in this 
direction. A statement issued by the General Education Board (Jan. 19, 
191 7) reads: "The General Education Board announces that it will provide 
Teachers College of Columbia University with the funds necessary to estab- 
Ksh and conduct a school for the purpose of constructive work in the 
reorganization of elementary and secondary education. The keen and ex- 
tended discussion of President Eliot's paper on ' Changes Needed in Second- 
ary Education' and Abraham Flexner's paper on 'The Modern School' 
have convinced the General Education Board of the importance of support- 
ing a school conducted in cooperation with Teachers College for the purpose 
of working out by cautious experimentation, suggested improvements in the 
curriculum, so that it may be better adapted to the needs of modern hfe 
than is the curriculum now in common use. 

"The organization of the school under the auspices of Teachers College 
insiures the careful study of every experiment by the Faculty of Teachers 



NATURE AND SCOPE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 9 

profession at the present time, and who remains in service for 
any considerable period, will be in the midst of important 
changes and must have a mind to understand them and a sym- 
pathetic attitude toward them, striving to evaluate them prop- 
erly and to aid in their advancement when they seem desirable. 
Such a teacher must remember that the high school is aiming to 
give an education to a large number of pupils of varied home 
training, tastes, and abilities, and that no aristocratic or ex- 
clusive notion of what secondary education ought to be will 
fit the high school situation as it exists today. He must make 

CoUege, many of whom are among the ablest critics of educational procedure 
in the world. This arrangement will make for carefully considered and 
continuous progress toward the goal for which the school is estabhshed. A 
number of colleges have already expressed interest in the undertaking, and it 
is hoped that academic cooperation will be obtained. 

"In the curriculum modern languages will be stressed and experiments will 
be made with a view to determining what methods of teaching English, 
French, and German give the most substantial practical results. New meth- 
ods of teaching literature, history, and civics wiU be tried, and in this connec- 
tion efforts will be made to ascertain whether the important ancient classics 
cannot be effectively used in translations. Latin and Greek as languages will 
not be taught in the school. Science, industry, and the domestic arts will be 
prominent throughout the school, and increased attention will be given to 
music, drawing, and art. The subject of mathematics will receive special 
consideration in the hope of working out a rational course of study which 
connects the study of mathematics with its use, and which also makes ade- 
quate provision for those who have special ability or desire for this subject. 

"Organized recreation, play, and games will be provided for. Constant 
efforts will be made by means of individual, class, and school excursions, by 
means of pictures, lantern slides, charts, maps, shop and laboratory, special 
reading matter, and discussions, to give the pupils sufficient contact with 
their natural, industrial, social, economic, vocational, and domestic environ- 
ment so as to derive the basis for their school work from real situations, and 
thus make school work constantly real to them. The school will frankly 
discard that theory of education known as 'formal discipline,' and will 
undertake to secure training through the careful and thorough study of 
subjects which are in themselves valuable. It is believed that a much more 
effective discipline can be thus secured." 



20 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

up his mind that more and more the demand for vocational 
and practical education will be voiced, and that the older ideas 
of a cultural and a disciplinary education will be pushed to one 
side to satisfy the demands of the present day. Above all he 
must free himself from the notion that the high school exists 
chiefly for the purpose of preparing boys and girls for college. 
This does not mean that the young teacher fresh from academic 
studies is to abandon his college ideals, but it does mean that 
he must readjust many of his notions in order to make them 
conform to the present day aim of education, whose watch- 
word is preparation for efficient living and community service. 



CHAPTER II 

THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 

The Teacher Must Know the Pupil. — The teacher must 
teach his subject to individuals, — the pupils under his charge. 
This is a truism in education, but one that cannot be repeated 
too often, particularly to the young teacher fresh from college, 
where he has been given the impression by many of his instruc- 
tors that the only thing necessary for him to know is his sub- 
ject. Indeed he may have gained the idea that to know anything 
about school methods, or the minds of his pupils is beneath the 
dignity of a teacher in the high school. Such triviahties should 
be left to the elementary teacher, he feels. Nothing, however, 
could be farther from the truth. Though no teacher should 
of his own voUtion seek to give instruction in a subject with 
which he has not a large measure of familiarity, and though high 
scholarship and accurate knowledge mean much for his success, 
they are not the only elements in this success. The teacher who 
does not attempt to know something about the pupils under 
him, who does not recognize the problems of fitting his instruc- 
tion to their needs, interests, and capacities, is in grave danger of 
failing. The best teacher is the one who knows his subject, and 
at the same time knows how to impart it to his pupils; but he 
cannot know how to impart it unless he knows the boys and girls 
under his charge, both individually and collectively. To know 
them as individuals he must come in vital contact with them in 
the classroom, and in the wider life of the school. He cannot be 
provided with this knowledge in advance. It is a problem for 
him to work out on the ground; but a knowledge of his pupils 
collectively, an understanding of the type, or types of high 

21 



22 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

school pupils that he is Hkely to encounter, can be secured in 
part before he actually meets them. It is the purpose of this 
chapter to present in regard to boys and girls of high school 
age some of the most essential facts that have been reasonably 
well established by observation and investigation. 

The High School Pupil is an Adolescent. — First of all it 
should be kept in mind the boys and girls of high school age are 
adolescents, just developing into young manhood and woman- 
hood. These early years of adolescence are in many ways the 
most critical in life, and they mark themselves off from the years 
of childhood and of full maturity in a fairly distinct way in most 
individuals, and in a striking manner in a few. 

At this point, however, the writer feels that a word of caution 
should be uttered for the benefit of those who have gained the 
impression that the youth is a fundamentally different indi- 
vidual from the child, and that with the onset of puberty there 
occur changes that are second only to those that separate the 
postnatal existence from that before birth. In most instances 
there are few sudden changes that announce the arrival of the 
pubescent years. Generally there are no marked upheavals, no 
cataclysms in habits, thoughts and feelings, no radical out- 
breaks, or uncontrollable emotions. While interests, ambitions 
and ideals take on new forms, the great fundamental principles of 
learning are the same for the child, the youth, and the adult. These 
will be discussed in later chapters, and their bearings on instruc- 
tion in the high school pointed out. In passing it may be well to 
say that repetition and drill cannot be dispensed with at the 
end of the grammar grades, that reasoning ability is not some- 
thing that is born with puberty, but that it develops gradually 
from childhood on to maturity, and that interest and purpose 
in study must motivate the school work throughout its entire 
course. 

Yet, while emphasizing the essential likeness of human na- 
ture in its fundamental elements, we must recognize the fact 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 23 

that the changes that occur with the coming of adolescence are 
sufficiently important to modify in many ways the subject- 
matter of instruction and its methods of presentation. For 
these reasons the next few pages of this discussion will consider 
the characteristics of this period of life. 

The Most Important Characteristics of Adolescence. — (a) 
Adolescence is a period of mental and physical change. — Although 
the child develops from year to year both in mind and body, 
the development of the adolescent is on the whole more rapid, 
and changes sometimes appear with considerable abruptness. 
There is acceleration in the growth of the body as a whole, both 
in height and weight, that comes with the onset of puberty; 
there is also growth in the bones, muscles, and various bodily 
organs, and a change in the relative size and weight of these 
parts. Lung capacity and blood pressure increase, there are 
the well-known changes in the quality and pitch of the voice, 
particularly to be observed in boys, and although there is no 
marked increase in brain weight, it is probable that there is a 
development of the brain-cells and their connections. Of great 
significance both in the physical and the mental life of the child 
is the rapid development to functional capacity of the sex-organs 
at this time. 

As marked as are some of these physical changes, they are 
as a rule overshadowed by the mental changes with which they 
are closely associated. This is the time when the feeling and 
emotional life appears in new forms, sometimes attended with 
marked upheavals. On the intellectual side there is consider- 
able growth in intelligence and mental grasp. These changes 
will be discussed in greater detail in the next few pages with 
particular reference to their significance for education. 

(b) Bodily development during this period is closely related to 
questions of hygie7ie and discipline. — The health of the pupil is 
an important consideration during all stages of instruction, but 
the rapid growth of the body during the early adolescent period, 



24 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

raises some important questions that the teacher should keep 
in mind. While but a relatively small percentage of children in 
America are seriously injured by school occupations, the teacher 
should remember that the physical development of the young 
adolescent often makes it particularly difficult for him to hold 
his mind to a task for any great length of time. Lesson assign- 
ments should be of moderate length, generally not requiring 
more than an hour's preparation outside of the classroom. 
When it is possible during the class period to help the pupil in 
the preparation of his next lesson this should be done. Above 
all the teacher should never assign unnecessary work to the 
pupil, merely "to give him enough to do." Insist on faithful- 
ness and accuracy, but do not expect too much. The adolescent 
girl should be given special consideration. There are times 
when she needs particular indulgence; times when school tasks 
should be lightened, or even entirely remitted. 

Both boys and girls often show provoking tendencies toward 
inattention, day-dreaming, and downright laziness. These 
mental lapses are in part due to physical conditions. While the 
teacher should do all in his power to stimulate flagging zeal and' 
recall wandering attention, he should not too readily assume 
that the pupil's provoking attitude is due to a real perversity 
on his part. The changes in the vocal organs have a close bear- 
ing on the teacher's problem. The stammering and hesitating 
boy, who sometimes refuses to the point of obstinacy to talk, 
may have a reason for his hesitancy, diffidence, and seeming 
stupidity in a lack of control over his voice. Under such condi- 
tions declamation and singing are not likely to be valuable 
exercises. The giggling girl, one of the most disturbing factors 
in the high school classroom, is not merely silly; she lacks con- 
trol of both body and mind. In dealing with these and similar 
cases the teacher must be firm, but sympathetic. To accept 
these annoying conditions as necessary and therefore as unavoid- 
able is to adopt a hopeless fatalism; to consider them examples 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 25 

of original sin is an equal folly. The pupil must be disciplined, 
but there should be no irritation or unnecessary unkindness in 
his discipline. 

(c) Various instinctive tendencies manifest themselves with 
great strength.-kDuring the early adolescent period certain in- / 
stincts, heretofore nascent, or but weakly expressed, assert 
themselves with vigor^ Q hief am on g the se are those complex 
fcprJfinri'i^ z that rgnfp.r aroun d sex. The attraction of the boy for 
the girl and the girl for the boy appears in a new form. Whether 
this attraction shall develop into something noble and uplifting, 
or into something base and destroying, depends largely upon 
the proper education of the youth at this period. For this 
education the school shares responsibility with the home and 
the church, indeed in many instances it is the school alone that 
can guide the young person safely through this time of storm 
and stress. No high school teacher should shirk the duty im- 
posed. He should be on the alert to recognize dangerous ten- 
dencies in the behavior of pupils in his classes or in the school 
building and to check them at the outset, (in most instances he 
cannot give formal moral instruction, or discuss matters of sex ^ 
hygiene, but he should never lose an appropriate opportunity, 
to emphasize the highest of ideals in regard to the relation of 
the sexej&P Indirectly in various ways he can do much to help. 



(,The teacher of literature or history can in many instances, without 
departing from the regular work of instructionjand without forcing 
facts out of their proper relation, find opportunity to emphasize the 
great moral truths of human experience. He should not give a lec- 
ture in ethics, but he should consider it imperative to neglect no real 
occasion to impress upon his pupils the great value of those virtues 
of thought and action that have made sex-love one of the loftiest of 
all forms of human expression. 

\ The teacher of biology has an equal opportunity in another and 
somewhat different way. He can do much to correct the indecent 
notions that center around sex and to remove the absurd ''taboo" 



«^ 



26 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

concerning it, by direct, simple and scientific statements of the facts 
of reproduction as they appear in the animal and plant world. Much 
of the vileness in thought and action of youth results from the fact 
that these things are kept in the dark. They are considered base 
/ because they are made to appear base by the social attitude of re- 

^ pression concerning them. Boys and girls will not remain in ignorance 
of the facts. It is better that they should learn them as they are, 
devoid of misconception and immoral implication, than to pick them 
up from the worst possible sources saturated with filth and distorted 
by untruth. (^Every teacher of physiology and botany should at the 
beginning of the course consult v/ith the school principal and deter- 
/mine just what should be taught in this regard, and when and how 

^ such information should be imparted.^ 

V Youth is often prone to tire of home surroundings; there is a 
longing to get away from the hum-drum routine of daily living, 
and to seek new experiences and adventure in the big world 
that lies over the rim of the horizon, j What is sometimes called 
^' the ^ ' migratory im^iinri ' ' now appears in its greatest force, and 
the boy in particular often feels its pulling power. School tasks 
are for most children at times a burden, but never more so than 
in these first years of adolescence. To hold the pupil in the high 
school, the work must be made attractive. It should be the 
aim of every teacher to make the classroom and the laboratory 
a place where the pupil likes to be. This does not mean that 
the teacher should not require thorough work and honest work, 
but it does mean that he should do all in his power to inject into 
the work every bit of human interest possible, to make the sub- 
ject that he teaches appeal to all legitimate tendencies in young 
people, as far as this can be done without vital injury to the 
subject taught. Dry-as-dust methods, and dull logical forms 
of presentation may possibly succeed in the elementary school, 
but they are for the most part sad failures in high school. The 
young teacher should not attempt to present a subject in the 
form in which he learned it in college, unless he feels certain that 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 27 

this is the form best suited to awaken the interest of the pupils 
under his direction. It is a common error of the inexperienced 
teacher to carry over, often in detail, the subject-matter and 
its method of treatment from the college to the high school. 

In recent years much thought has been given to the question of 
attracting a large number of boys and girls to the high school and of 
keeping them there as long as possible. The problem is to awaken 
and to hold the interest. For this reason, in part at least, subjects 
that make a broad appeal to fundamental instincts and ambitions 
have been added to the curriculum in ever increasing numbers, and 
methods have been revised to make the subjects more attractive. The 
tendency to manipulate and construct has been in part satisfied by 
the manual courses; vocational ambitions have been appealed to by 
the introduction of commercial and technical courses; the attempt 
to satisfy the interest in doing something rather than in going through 
a series of formal exercises in preparation for doing something later 
has led to the development of the direct method of teaching lan- 
guage in which the initial grammatical work is cut down to a mini- 
mum, and the pupil begins to speak and read the language almost 
from the first day.^ Science is now sometimes taught by taking up at 
the outset some big fact in human experience and later discovering 
the elementary principles that lie at the basis of it, rather than by 
studying the elements and later finding out how they enter into ac- 
tual things. So, too, history and literature in many classes are no 
longer a dry catalog of facts and dates, but they are subjects that 
make a direct appeal to the immediate interests of young people by 
bringing the characters and events into vital connection with the 
actual, pulsating present. 

Youth is essentially social. ^The desire to flock with one's kind, 
the " gregarious instin ct'' as it is sometimes called, is deep-seated 
in the human race, and is also a marked tendency among ani- 
mals.^ It is never absent from life from the time when little 
children first play together until the very end, but never is it 

^ See Chapters IX., p. 193, and X., p. 201. 



28 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

more intense than at the high school age. At this period, too, 
come out in full force other social tendencies. Not only do 
youth like to congregate together, but they have strong ^' Jeeling 
i.'^dr^imd''' \They show sympathy as never before, they strive 
actively to cooperate, they desire approbation, they have a 
regard for the rights of others even at the expense of their own 
wishes, and they show a loyalty to those of their group that at 
times is little less than heroic, j All the best tendencies at the 
basis of altruism may appear now in their greatest strength. 
The school and the teacher must recognize these socializing 
factors, give them all legitimate opportunity for expression and 
use them when possible for the attainment of desired educational 
ends. 

The school should have a reasonable number of social functions, 
properly supervised and controlled by the teaching staff. The teacher 
should consider it a part of his duty to stimulate desirable school or- 
ganizations and to give some of his time to promoting them. Musical 
clubs, dramatic clubs, debating societies, athletic organizations, and 
even dancing clubs have their place in the well-regulated high school 
that cares for the best interests of its pupils. These organizations, 
however, must be open and democratic. Secret societies have no 
place in the high school, and clubs founded on any basis other than 
that of membership in the high school and ability to enter upon the 
activities that they tend to promote, are a menace to the integrity 
of the school. 

^/^he " social instinrt?^'^ should be provided for not only through 
school organizations; they should be given opportunity to 
express themselves in the class work. Every teacher should aim 
to make his class a social unit, — a distinctly cooperative affair.^ 
Each pupil should have the attitude of contributing something 
to the class as a whole. He should recite not to the teacher, but 
to the class; he should bring into the class special bits of informa- 

^ See particularly Chapter VII., p. 148. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 29 

tion for the use of all. The teacher should guide, organize and 
direct, but not completely dominate. 

Our school rooms are so arranged physically as to prevent coopera- 
tion. The desks should not be placed in formal rows as at present is 
almost universally the custom, but the pupils should be seated in 
chairs arranged in a semi-circle with the teacher in the center. Each 
pupil who takes part in a class exercise could then easily address the 
class as a whole. He would look into the faces of his mates, and not 
into the back of their necks. The tendency to recite merely to the 
teacher would then be largely done away with. The pupil would 
"talk up," not mumble or whisper as he often does at present. The 
whole tone of the recitation would be greatly improved. Unfortu- 
nately the teacher can do but Httle to overcome the inherent diffi- 
culties due to the present seating arrangement. When he has a small 
class in a large room he can, however, arrange his pupils by seating 
them in the back row, and in the two outside rows, thus placing them 
in the form of three sides of a hollow square. This method of seating 
should be followed when it is possible. 

Although the teacher can do Httle in regard to proper seating, he 
can accustom his class to recite to the class and not merely to him; 
he can ask individuals when they discuss a topic of some length, or 
read before the class to stand in the front of the room, facing their 
mates; he can assign to individual members topics to look up or 
facts to investigate as a basis for subsequent report, and at times 
he can let certain pupils aid him in teaching the class. The teacher, 
however, should never surrender entire control; he should always be 
on hand to guide, direct, and if necessary to interfere. The writer 
observed recently a class in current events organized with a chair- 
man, and with the teacher a mere onlooker, who was supposed in 
no way to interfere. This class spent the entire period of forty min- 
utes in discussing the spelling of Serbia, developing a heated contro- 
versy of the most trivial nature, and ending in no very definite con- 
clusion. This was a period wasted. No teacher can afford to conduct 
a class of this sort. 

One of the most important sentiments developed through the 
maturing of the cooperative and socializing tendencies of adoles- 



30 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

cence is that of loyalty mentioned above. This loyalty is specific. 
It is group loyalty. There is no more important human ideal 
than that of loyalty, and although it may seem to be too nar- 
rowly expressed, it should be carefully nurtured. The pupil 
should never be encouraged to be a tale-bearer. The tell-tale 
is neither loyal to his fellows, the teacher, nor the school. He 
is generally seeking his own advantage, or is a prig. The dis- 
cipline of a school that rests on tale-bearers is likely to be a 
failure. Only under the most extreme conditions where the 
fundamental welfare of the school is at stake should a boy or 
girl be encouraged, or even allowed, to "tell on his fellows." 
We must remember that if the adolescent fails to be loyal to the 
group, to "his group," he is likely never to be loyal to anybody 
or anything. 

While it is not wise to encourage tale-bearing, it is possible to con- 
trol the members of the group through appealing to the group to 
safeguard its best interests. If the group can be impressed with the 
necessity of holding to strict accountability all individuals who com- 
mit offences that work injury to the group, if a class or school can be 
made to realize the importance of protecting itself against those 
members who are likely to bring it into disrepute, this social senti- 
ment will accomplish wonders in discipline, and the teacher need 
rarely to interfere. 

It often happens that such offences as dishonesty can be dealt with 
adequately by making the group see and feel that a cheat is an injury 
to its good name; that he destroys cooperation between teacher and 
class, creating an attitude of suspicion and distrust that work to the 
harm of all. ^ Indeed it is generally impossible to deal effectively with 
classroom dishonesty by any other method than by arousing the re- 
sentment of the pupils as a body toward it. This matter will be more 
fully discussed in Chapter VI. 

(a) Youth is a period of intense, though often conflicting and 
fluctuating interests. — Closely associated with the maturing in- 

1 See Chapter VI., p. 123. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 3 1 

stincts discussed above are various adolescent interests that 
from time to time express themselves with great force, often 
in exaggerated, intense, and contradictory forms. To these 
interests the teacher may appeal with great advantage 
at times; he can never safely ignore them or thwart 
them. 

At this time, particularly with boys, the vocational interest 
looms large. These young people are beginning to think about 
careers, and they wish to see a connection between what they 
study and what they hope to do after they leave school. Teach- 
ers of the recognized vocational subjects have here a great ad- 
vantage over those who have charge of the older "academic 
courses." A pupil can easily see how a course in stenography, 
book-keeping, or shop-practice may help him later on, but it is 
difficult to make him feel that Latin, geometry, or even his- 
tory is likely to play any considerable part in his adult life. For- 
tunately there are interests other than those centering around 
narrowly practical ideals that can be appealed to by teachers 
of these latter subjects. It is often possible, however, to make 
the most academic topic take a practical bearing, and whenever 
this can be done without injuring in any essential way the de- 
velopment of the course or the lesson, it should be attempted. 

One of the greatest faults of our teaching is that it is not 
closely enough related to life as the pupil understands it and 
knows it. It is a vicious educational theory which holds that 
a subject in high school or college is deprived of its cultural and 
disciplinary values when the pupil selects it because he believes 
that it is to be of some definite use to him and because he sees 
in it some application to the world about him. Any subject 
or course of study is vivified and vitalized when the learner be- 
lieves that it has for him a definite value. In America we have 
carried the notion of culture and discipline divorced from use 
to an extreme unknown in any other system of education in 
the western world. 



32 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

As a rule the best teachers of such subjects as language, literature, 
history, and mathematics take pains to make a direct application 
whenever it fits. Even Latin has its practical side. It stimulates the 
interest of the pupil when the teacher shows him the connection be- 
tween Latin words and their English derivatives or the place of Latin 
in modern literature. In French and German the practical and hu- 
man sides are even more obvious, and Spanish is now being intro- 
duced in the high school curriculum almost entirely because of com- 
mercial reasons. While the teaching of English composition is being 
approached more and more from the standpoint of social and business 
correspondence, and newspaper writing, there is still too much for- 
malism in the ordinary high school theme. The teacher should keep 
in mind that the function of written discourse is to express ideas, and 
he should aim to make his subject connect itself with ideas that the 
pupils have and desire to express. The teacher of English literature 
or of history must strive at every point to make his subject seem 
"real" to the class, and to make it a reality he must bring it into 
some definite relation with their lives. This does not mean that he 
must demonstrate its narrow utilitarian value, but it does mean that 
he must impress upon his pupils the sense that the facts and ideas 
that they find in their text-books or that are brought out in the class- 
room have something in common with their own experience. In 
United States history and in civics the applications are on every hand, 
and a teacher who presents these subjects merely as text-book and 
recitation courses has failed to avail himself of a splendid oppor- 
tunity. Teachers of high school mathematics and natural science 
are attempting in many instances to get away from a merely theo- 
retical and logical presentation of their subjects and to give problems 
whenever possible that are in the practical field. ^ 

Although vocational interests loom large in the early adoles- 
cent years there are other and less practical motives that are 
equally intense. It is one of the paradoxes of this period of life 
that while the adolescent is often most narrowly utilitarian, 
and is inclined to ask the use of the studies that he pursues, he 

1 See Chapter XII., p. 270. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 33 

is on many occasions broadly idealistic. When he is in the 
mood he is far less practical than the child in the grades or the 
man in adult life. Big ideals often sway him. Among the non- 
practical interests his intellectual ideals stand out strongly. He 
often has a burning desire to know, he is genuinely curious, he 
loves to argue and debate, he sometimes is filled with a passion 
for reading, and his linguistic interests are apt to be strong. He 
is less prone than formerly to follow the ideas of others; and mere 
memory cram is often distasteful and generally profitless. At 
this stage of the pupil's development the teacher should par- 
ticularly strive to state the school work as far as possible in the 
form of problems, of course problems that are real problems for 
him; problems that awaken his curiosity and urge him toward 
their solution. Appeal to his originality and inventiveness in 
terms of his genuine interests should be made whenever pos- 
sible. Every proper incentive should be given the pupil to read 
and to read the best things; he should have opportunity under 
wise supervision and direction to present his own reasons for 
his opinions and beliefs, and his linguistic interests should be 
appealed to through direct methods of language teaching, when- 
ever such methods are possible. 

The teachers of science sometimes miss golden opportunities to 
appeal to the curiosity of the pupil and to stimulate his self-activity 
in the solution of problems in physics, chemistry, and biology. The 
laboratory exercises are often quite formal, the pupil has no genuine 
desire to discover new facts or principles, and he goes through a series 
of careful instructions contained in a laboratory manual in a me- 
chanical way. He may be interested in the manipulation of his ma- 
terials, but a genuine scientific curiosity is for the most part lacking. 
WTienever it is possible, the teacher of the natural sciences should 
aim in the class period preceding a laboratory exercise to develop the 
subject to the point where the class are eager to know what follows 
or happens next.^ They should see the problem and try to state it 

* See Chapter XIV., p. 307. 



34 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

themselves. The teacher should merely guide and direct them toward 
its formulation. Then he should send them into the laboratory, fur- 
nished with a sufficient amount of instruction as to the technique and 
method of solution to prevent unnecessary errors, waste, and loss of 
time, but he should not give them minute instructions as to every 
detail of their experiment. As supervisor of the laboratory period he 
can help those who need help when the necessity arises, but he must 
see to it that this help is given only when there is an actual need. 
The self-activity of the pupil should be appealed to as much as 
possible. 

In a similar way the teacher of geometry should lead his pupils to 
see certain spatial relationships without telling them that these rela- 
tions exist. The pupil should state the problem himself and attempt 
to solve it by the aid of the teacher, rather than learn it as a mere 
memory exercise in the formal and logical manner of the text-book. 
This should be used as a supplement of the work rather than as the 
chief source of instruction. ^ 

To stimulate reading interests is one of the chief aims of culture. 
The teacher of literature is generally given this task, yet it should not 
be confined to him alone. There is no subject in the curriculum that 
does not lead the pupil to books, if the subject is so presented as to 
arouse further desire for information. As far as possible collateral 
reading by high school pupils should not be made too formal. A 
pupil who wishes to know more about something should be referred 
to some book or article that will teU what he wishes to know in a 
simple and direct manner. Later the pupil should briefly tell to the 
class the essential facts that he has discovered in his reading. The 
teacher of literature who is striving to give his pupils a taste for the 
best things should have a care not to kill their reading interests at 
the outset by assigning them literary masterpieces that they cannot 
comprehend or enjoy. It is better to cultivate a desire to read by 
sending the pupil to the Saturday Evening Post than to kill that 
desire by offering him Paradise Lost when he is not capable of 
becoming interested in it. 

One of the most successful methods of stimulating literary inter- 
ests that the writer has observed was in a class in EngHsh that was 
^ See Chapter XIII., p. 281 and Appendix C, p. 422. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 35 

given as a text, a book containing extracts from writings of excellence, 
selected with the definite attempt of making an appeal to the pupils. 
The teacher told enough of the story to lead up to the extract read by 
the class, but he never told the sequel. The demand for the books 
containing the whole story became so great that the public library in 
the city could not supply it. There was not a pupil in the class that 
did not want to know how some story "came out," and most of the 
class wanted to know how the majority of the stories ended. In an- 
other instance a teacher of literature varied this method by requiring 
the pupils to write how they thought the story ended and read their 
compositions to the class. 

The aesthetic, moral and religious interests of adolescence are 
Vi^ithout doubt in part connected with the physical development 
and the maturing of instincts that characterize this period. An 
impersonal love for beauty and for nature seems to be more 
prominent at this time than ever before. The little child is 
attracted by bright colors, is extremely sensitive to rhythm, and 
shows at times considerable creative ability, particularly in his 
drawings. He has the capacity to learn the technique of various 
arts, but he is lacking in genuine appreciation of music, painting, 
sculpture, and literature. With youth this is not so. He often 
shows a veritable passion for the beautiful, his appreciation for 
the products of art, though generally crude is sincere, and he 
is nearer to creative genius than at any other time in his life. 
It is a fact to be regretted that our high schools for the most 
part ofifer little that is distinctly calculated to stimulate and de- 
velop genuine artistic interest. Most courses in art are formal 
and technical, and of these the number offered is few. Of the 
subjects ordinarily included in the high school curriculum the 
courses in Enghsh offer the best opportunity of teaching artistic 
appreciation and stimulating creative ability. This aspect of 
the teaching of English should not be subordinated to the gram- 
matical, technical, and historical phases of the subject, as is 
too often the case. 



36 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

Moral ideals and religious enthusiasms first appear in their 
strength during the high school period. As a rule there is little 
definite attempt made to give direct moral and religious in- 
struction, but there are many occasions when the teacher can 
appeal to the finest and best in the thoughts and feelings of his 
pupils through indirect means. Noble purposes, high ideals, 
love of truth, attitudes of respect for authority and a reverence 
for the best things in human life, these and many other high 
aspirations from time to time touch the lives of the youth with 
vital force. Here lie the teacher's opportunity and his .clear 
duty. 

The Enrollment in our American High Schools Includes 
Pupils of Varying Social Status and Marked Difference in 
Abilities. — High school pupils in America, as we saw in the dis- 
cussion in our first chapter, do not come from a narrowly selected 
group. It has been shown that the economic condition of the 
parents has relatively little influence on whether the boy or the 
girl continues a course of study beyond the elementary school. 
The social condition of the parents is also not a very important 
factor. Poor and unlettered parents who have a genuine desire 
to give their children an education generally manage to do so 
through the medium of the public high school. 

A study made by J. K. Van Denberg of a thousand boys and girls 
picked at random, who entered the New York City high schools in 
February, 1906, showed that among the fathers of these children 
there are "as many compositors as there are doctors, lawyers, clergy- 
men, and teachers combined. There are nearly twice as many ' tail- 
ors,' — that is workers on garments. There are as many waiters as 
there are architects; as many barbers as there are civil and electrical 
engineers; as many janitors as there are dentists and editors together. 
The policemen, carpenters, masons, plumbers, metal workers, paint- 
ers, compositors, and firemen outnumber the doctors, lawyers, clergy- 
men, and teachers five to one. Coachmen, street cleaners, elevator 
men, Turkish-bath attendants, watchmen, and laundry workers send 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 37 

sons to the high school. Coachmen, elevator men, and watchmen 
send as many as clergymen and teachers." ^ Van Denberg's investiga- 
tion further shows that nearly three-quarters of the families whose 
home conditions were investigated were paying ten to twenty-five 
dollars monthly rental and that over a third of the total were paying 
fifteen dollars, and a considerable number only ten dollars. Such a 
rental in New York city means a three or four-room tenement in the 
cheapest quarter of Manhattan or Brooklyn, according to Strayer 
and Thorndike. 

While these conditions refer to New York City primarily, there is 
no reason to think that they do not offer a substantially true picture 
of conditions as they exist in most of our American cities of consider- 
able size, and they are probably to an extent true of many small com- 
munities, particularly where there is a considerable proportion of 
families of foreign birth or extraction. 

Strayer, in a study of the economic status of high school pupils,- 
gives the following table, showing the vocation of the parents of these 
pupils: 

Students whose fathers are professional men 10% 

Students whose fathers operate a farm with over $5,000 21% 

Students whose fathers operate a farm with less than $5,000 .... 15% 
Students whose fathers make more than $2,000 a year in trade 

or commerce 10% 

Students whose fathers make between $1,000 and $2,000 in trade 

or commerce 14% 

Students whose fathers are skilled artisans making $1,500 a year 

or more 14% 

Students whose fathers are unskilled laborers 16% 

"These figures," says the writer, "indicate the thoroughly demo- 
cratic character of our public high schools. In any community one 
may expect to find children from the families of professional people 
along with the children of day laborers." 

* Quoted from Strayer and Thorndike, Educational Administration, pp. 69, 
70 (1913). 

2 Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1910, Vol. II., p. xxv. 



38 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

The ability of a pupil as shown by his record in the elementary 
school is a factor of considerable importance in determining 
whether he shall go on to the high school. The very poorest 
pupils are eliminated before they finish the grammar grades. 
The intellectually unfit are not as likely to enter the high school 
as are those of better ability. Yet this eUmination through lack 
of ability is not thoroughgoing, and many pupils start out on 
a high school course who are incapable of doing work of aca- 
demic nature. 

If the pupil regards a high school course as definitely con- 
nected with his future career he is more hkely to enter and to 
remain than if he goes with no very definite object in view. 
However, a large number of children annually enter our high 
schools with no clear notion of why they are continuing their 
education; generally the parents of these children are likewise 
confused in their notions as to what the high school is likely to 
do for the pupil. It is desirable as soon as possible that these 
pupils and their parents come to some conclusion as to what is 
to be definitely gained through a high school course of study. 

The high school teacher should keep all of these facts in mind 
in dealing with his pupils. He should remember that the boys 
and girls in his classes often come with no background of culture 
or refinement, that sometimes the parents are very poor and 
many times illiterate, that home conditions of study are seldom 
ideal, and that they are often very bad. He should also remem- 
ber that many of his pupils have no great ability, that a con- 
siderable number come to the high school for no definite reason, 
and that these generally do not have a strong motive to do good 
work. If he keeps these facts in mind he will not expect too 
much at the outset; he will attempt in striving to stimulate his 
pupils to do better work to find out something about their home 
conditions, their general abilities, and the reasons that they have 
for coming to the school and for selecting a certain course of 
study. This individual inquiry is necessary if the teacher hopes 



THE HIGH SCHOOL PUPIL 39 

to be a guide and a help to his pupils in anything more than an 
external and a formal way. 
The Elimination of High School Pupils is Marked. — 

According to one extensive investigation, out of one hundred 
pupils entering the first primary grade twenty-seven survive 
until the first high school grade, seventeen until the second, 
twelve until the third, and eight until the fourth.^ While the 
proportion of pupils entering and graduating from the high 
school varies widely in different localities the above cited in- 
vestigation gives a fair indication of the rate at which pupils 
dropped out of the high school a decade ago. During the last 
few years conditions have improved somewhat, but elimination 
is still marked. The reasons for such elimination are various. 
One has already been mentioned, a lack of a definite purpose on 
entering high school. Among other causes that are important 
is age at entrance, over-age pupils tending to leave school more 
often than normal age or under-age pupils. Abihty, industry and 
success in school work are also deciding factors. School marks — 
during the first few months give a strong indication as to whether 
the pupil is likely to remain in school. The pupils that receive 
high grades will probably continue to the end of the course, those 
who receive grades of fifty or under are likely to drop out before 
the end of the year. Low grades are closely correlated with early 
elimination from the high school for two reasons. In the first 
place, low grades generally indicate poor abihty, and pupils of 
poor abihty do not as a rule remain long at intellectual tasks. 
In the second place, lack of initial success often tends to dis- 
courage the pupil, and he generally takes the first opportunity 
to leave school unless he has some strong motive for desiring to 
complete the course, or is compelled by his parents to stay. 

It is generally held by those interested in public education 
that it is desirable to keep most pupils who enter high school in 
the school as long as possible. The ideal is to make the school 

^ E. L. Thorndike, U. S. Bureau of Educaliofiy Bulletin No. 4 (1907). 



40 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

serve all classes and minister to all degrees and kinds of ability 
and not to perform the function of selecting the best for survival, 
and eliminating as rapidly as possible those who are not up to 
the standard. The American high school teacher must accept 
this aim, and not proceed on the theory that the high school is 
primarily an agency for the elimination of the unfit. The teacher 
must therefore do all in his power to give the pupils a genuine 
motive for doing their work, and wishing to complete the course; 
he must consider it his duty to work with pupils of poor ability in 
order to bring them up to a passing standard; he must make the 
work of the first few weeks and months of such a nature that 
those of average ability and reasonable industry can do it. 
Above all, he never should pride himseU on the fact that a large 
number of his pupils have failed to pass an examination, or have 
fallen below grade in a course. This does not mean that he shall 
discard standards, or make his work easy in the wrong sense of 
the term; but it does mean that he must strive in every legitimate 
way to adapt his instruction to the capacities and interests of his 
pupils. 



CHAPTER III 

THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 

The American High School Teacher Does not Conform 
to any One Type. — Who teach our boys and girls in our high 
schools? This question can be answered in only a most general 
way, because there is no one class or type of high school teachers. 
They vary in social position, general education, special prepara- 
tion, and in nationality. As a rule they come from famiUes of 
moderate means, families of the better middle class. The salaries 
they receive vary widely, ranging from a minimum of four or five 
hundred dollars a year to a maximum of several thousand. In 
preparation there is a similar lack of uniformity, some high 
school teachers having had but one or two years' education be- 
yond the elementary school, and others having had eight, nine or 
even ten years. Although there is no typical high school teacher, 
it is safe to say that the "average" high school teacher, using the 
term average in the sense of the teacher most frequently found, 
is a young man or woman (more often a woman) with six, seven 
or eight years of preparation beyond the grades and receiving a 
salary of from six hundred to a thousand dollars annually. 
These facts wiU be discussed more in detail in the following 
pages. 

The Preparation of the American High School Teacher is 
Inadequate. — Measured by the standards of other professions 
the amount of special preparation that the American high 
school teacher receives for his work is as a rule inadequate. 
Considered in the light of the training that the European teacher 
obtains it is slight. Judged from the point of view of the im- 

41 



42 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

portance of the teaching profession to the nation it is far from 
ideal. 

(a) The European secondary school teacher is trained for a life 
profession. — In Europe the teacher in the secondary school is as 
thoroughly prepared for his work as are the lawyer, the doctor, 
the clergyman, and the army ofiScer for their callings. There 
is no short cut to becoming a teacher, hence teaching is never 
thought of as a make-shift or as a temporary occupation, as is 
too often the case in America. 

The Oberlehrer (regular teacher) in the boys' high schools in 
Germany must have completed his elementary and secondary 
education, which he generally does at about his eighteenth 
year, must have spent at least three full years in a university, 
must have passed a rigorous state examination and then must 
spend two additional years in special study and practice teaching 
before he becomes a qualified teacher. A similar preparation for 
an American high school teacher would require a college course 
followed by several years of graduate study, and accompanied or 
followed by a year of practice teaching in a standard high school 
under careful supervision. 

In France the preparation required for the teachers of boys in 
the lycees and communal colleges (the secondary schools of that 
country) is no less rigorous than that of Germany. The teachers 
(professeurs) in the lycees must have received the degree of 
agrege, which is given only after the completion of an elementary 
and secondary course of study covering twelve years, followed 
by several years of study in preparation for a competitive exam- 
ination for admission to a higher normal school, and by a course 
of three or four years in this school, at the end of which is a 
rigorous competitive examination for the agrege degree. "The 
agregation is a title, a kind of diploma, which not only stands for 
a high degree of scholarship, but also indicates that the holder is 
one of the ten or dozen best men in his subject in France that 
year, as proved by the fact that he has come out toward the 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 43 

head of a list in a national competitive examination." ^ The 
teachers in the communal colleges are not required to pass the 
competitive examination, though in other respects their training 
is the same. 

From this it may be seen that the German or French secondary 
school teacher must be a person of superior ability, since the 
strict and extended course of study and the rigorous examina- 
tions eliminate the weak; he must be a specialist in his subject 
with a knowledge as extensive and exact as that demanded of 
the average college professor in America; he must know well the 
theory and the art of teaching, and finally he must have demon- 
strated his ability as a teacher in actual practice. He is never 
called upon to teach anything but his ''subject;" the "exigencies 
of the program" do not determine his work, as too often is the 
case with the American teacher; he is not called upon to do 
independent teaching until he has demonstrated his abihty to 
do so; he is familiar with the best theories and the best methods 
of instruction in his own field, and he has a professional attitude 
and professional ideals. In comparison with such preparation, 
that of our own high school teachers is in striking contrast. 

(b) The American high school tecLcher receives hut a small 
amount of special preparation for his work. — As has already been 
said the American high school teacher is inadequately prepared 
for his work. He sometimes lacks in general academic training; 
he frequently knows Httle about the theory and practice of 
teaching, and he has had as a rule no supervised experience in 
teaching before entering upon his duties. He learns for the 
most part the skill of his art by the trial and error method, and 
too frequently it is blind trial and error, in which he is uncon- 
scious of his mistakes, or if conscious of them does not know how 
to correct them. Occasionally he receives suggestions from his 
principal or other supervising authorities, but if he can keep 

* Quoted from F. E. Farrington, Monroe's Principles of Secondary Educa- 
tion, p. 89 (1914). 



44 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

reasonably good order he is generally left to a large extent to his 
own devices. As a result of this inadequate preparation there is 
as yet scarcely a profession of secondary teaching in America. 
The minimum requirements are few, and men and women of 
mediocre ability, Httle knowledge, and no definite aims or 
ambitions find it possible to secure positions, at least in the 
smaller and weaker high schools. The situation, while at present 
not satisfactory, is nevertheless encouraging in many respects. 
More and more an adequate training for high school teachers is 
being recognized as desirable, and standards of local communi- 
ties and of states are being fixed and made more exacting. 

The preparation usually demanded in our better private 
and public secondary schools is graduation from a college of 
good standing. As a rule the demand is not much more specific. 
High specialization in the subject taught is not always insisted 
on. Indeed it is frequently the custom to assign a teacher to 
any subject in the curriculum on the theory that the teacher 
can keep ahead of the class. Instances are by no means uncom- 
mon of giving a teacher a subject that he has never taken in 
college, possibly never taken in the high school. Not only is 
specialization in subject-matter not always insisted on, but 
knowledge of the theoretical and practical phases of education 
is often considered unimportant. It is not unusual that a 
student fresh from college is engaged to teach although he has 
never taken a course in education and knows nothing about 
the high school, its methods, aims and present tendencies. 
High school teachers at times not only have little professional 
knowledge of their field, but sometimes hold in contempt such 
knowledge. Conditions in these respects are, however, def- 
initely improving. 

This Lack of Preparation Due to Various Causes. — 
One element in the situation is that for many years no special 
schools were provided for training the secondary teacher, on the 
assumption that a college degree was a sufficient warrant for 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 45 

entering the field of high school instruction. For a long time 
our higher institutions of learning never took up the matter of 
training teachers seriously. Indeed at the present time, it is 
not infrequently held that all a teacher needs to know is his 
subject; it is likewise claimed that "teachers are born and not 
made;" and not a few assert that teaching is an art that cannot 
be taught. 

The fallacies contained in these statements are too obvious to re- 
quire extended comment. It is a matter of common experience that 
teachers with considerable familiarity with their subject and some- 
times with a scholarly knowledge of a particular field may fail to 
impart that knowledge in a satisfactory manner to their pupils. It 
is evident that native ability is an important asset in teaching, but 
so it is in any profession or calling in life. We are in part bom, but 
we must likewise be made, whether we are lawyers, doctors, business 
men, or teachers. To hold that teaching as an art cannot be taught 
is to place it in a category by itself. To assert that a teacher can 
learn only by teaching is on the same plane as to assert that a doctor 
can learn only by practicing medicine, or a lawyer learn only by 
engaging in law. We value practical experience in aU callings in life, 
but in most instances we have found it the part of wisdom to prepare 
in advance as far as possible for such experience, and to instruct the 
novice, rather than to permit him to blunder along greatly to his 
own injury and that of the community. The fact that teachers on 
the average remain in their vocation but a relatively brief time as 
compared with men and women in other professions makes it all the 
more imperative that the preliminary period of learning be reduced 
to a minimum and that the teacher acquire in advance of actual teach- 
ing adequate knowledge of methods, to prevent him from unnecessary 
blunders at the expense of his pupils. 

While a lack of preparation of secondary teachers is partly 
the fault of the colleges they are not entirely to blame. Superin- 
tendents, principals, and boards of education have not suffi- 
ciently insisted on adequate training either in subject-matter 
or in professional knowledge and skill. In so far as the appoint- 



46 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

ing power is in the hands of a school committee, composed for 
the most part of men and women without professional knowl- 
edge of the field of education, little improvement in this respect 
can be expected. However, in so far as the appointing power is 
possessed by the supervising authorities, and in so far as they 
are in accord with the highest ideals of the teaching profession, 
the quality of the teacher both in knowledge and in skill is likely 
to be raised. It is an encouraging sign of the times that the 
selection of the teaching staff is being given over more and more 
to superintendent and principals, and that among this body of 
men and women there is a growing conviction of the necessity 
of a thorough preparation of the high school teacher, as well as 
of the primary and grammar school teacher. 

Existing Agencies for Training Secondary Teachers. — 
Notwithstanding the fact that many secondary teachers have 
no distinct preparation for their work the proportion of untrained 
teachers is each year growing less. This is due in part to the 
fact already referred to, that states, cities and even smaller 
communities are setting up higher standards of teaching pro- 
ficiency, and in part to the circumstance that existing agencies 
for adequately preparing secondar),^ teachers are rapidly grow- 
ing in number and increasing in efficiency. In some instances 
we find normal schools developing into normal colleges by the 
extension of their professional and academic work. Though 
the chief function of these schools is to train elementary teachers, 
the better schools by expanding their course to cover a period 
of four years beyond the secondary school are enabled to give 
training to high school teachers. Thus are being developed 
higher normal schools, the most notable example of which is 
Teachers College of Columbia University, which has now be- 
come a graduate school for the training of teachers, supervisors 
and educational experts, and which for a large proportion of 
its work requires as a prerequisite college graduation. 

During the last decade a great growth has been witnessed in 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 47 

our colleges and universities in the organization and develop- 
ment of departments of education, and in many instances these 
departments have grown into schools and colleges of education. 
In these institutions the training of the high school teacher is 
particularly emphasized, as is also the preparation of others 
for work in the field of education. A notable example of a 
highly organized and equipped school of education is found at 
the University of Chicago. Many of the important State 
Universities, as well as a considerable number of our larger 
endowed institutions of higher learning are also developing de- 
partments and schools of education that are seriously under- 
taking the problem of the adequate equipment of the teacher 
for his work. 

In the various colleges and schools of education that now exist in 
America the training of teachers to teach through actual experience 
in conducting classes under supervision occupies an important place. 
There are two general methods in vogue. The older method is to 
give the student-teacher his experience by assigning him to a local 
high school to teach a certain number of periods a week under the 
direction of a critic teacher. More recently there have been developed 
in connection with schools and colleges of education in our universi- 
ties, "practice" or "model" high schools under the control of the 
university authorities. To classes in these schools, student-teachers 
are assigned to give instruction under competent supervision. 

Both of these methods accomplish much in the preparation of the 
novice; each has certain merits of its own, and each has certain de- 
fects. The student-teacher who receives practice in a local high school 
is likely to encounter the problems of teaching as they exist somewhat 
more directly and in a more typical manner than the student-teacher 
who is trained in the model high school controlled by the university. 
On the other hand, when the high school is directly under the control 
of the university, it may be used more definitely as a training school 
for prospective teachers than can the high school that is independent 
of the university and whose purpose can be only in a very limited 
degree the training of teachers. 



48 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

One of the best examples of the plan for training teachers through 
cooperation of the city high schools with a higher institution of learn- 
ing is to be found in Providence, Rhode Island. For many years 
graduate students in the department of education at Brown University 
have been permitted to teach in the high schools of the city under 
joint supervision by the university authorities and by expert teachers 
in the high schools, who act as critics. The results have been 
uniformly excellent. Plans similar to this are in operation in a con- 
siderable number of our Eastern colleges and universities at the pres- 
ent time. On the other hand the higher institutions of the Middle- 
West favor the plan of student training through a model school. In 
some instances the organization of the model school is worked out 
with a large amount of detail and elaboration, as is the case at the 
University of Chicago. 

The Salary of the High School Teacher is Comparatively 
Small. — Judged by the standards of all other professions ex- 
cept the ministry the salary of the high school teacher is small. 
As has already been pointed out the range is wide, some teachers 
receiving but a few hundred dollars, while others obtain several 
thousand. These are extreme cases, however. In the case of 
men "if one were compelled to choose one amount as the most 
likely to be received by a teacher or principal . . . the amount 
would be $700. Their median salary is $900; that is, of men 
engaged in public high school work there are as many who re- 
ceive less than $900 as there are receiving more than $900." In 
the case of women, . . . "the median salary is $650." ^ 

These amounts represent high schools in general and the 
salaries paid some years ago. Today conditions are somewhat 
better. Further, these statistics refer to teachers of various 
kinds of equipment and with widely different capacities. In a 
comparison made by Strayer ^ of thirty cities, he found that 

^ Quoted from E. L. Thorndike in Strayer and Thorndike, op. cit. 
2 City School Expenditures, Teachers College, Columbia University, 
Contributions to Education^ No. 5 (1905). 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 49 

the lowest average salary of high school teachers reported by 
any city was $558 and the highest was $1,332.80. In the first 
of these cities the average daily wage of bricklayers was $3.75 
and of carpenters $3.00, and in the second the corresponding 
figures were $4.65 and $3.50. From this it can be seen, assum- 
ing that the bricklayers and carpenters had reasonably con- 
tinuous employment throughout the year, that their economic 
status would be at least equal to that of the average high school 
teacher in these two communities. In all of these cities the 
average daily wage received by these skilled workmen was 
not markedly inferior to that received by high school teachers. 
In some instances a skilled workman with steady employment 
would on the average receive a greater income during the year 
than the average high school teacher.^ 

While the money rewards of the high school teacher can be 
seen from the above statement to be inadequate in many ways, 
it should be remembered that the well-equipped and capable 
teacher is likely to receive a compensation considerably above 
the sum that these figures indicate. During the first years of 
his professional career the high school teacher will on the aver- 
age receive more money than will the young doctor or lawyer, 
and while the ultimate money rewards are not so great for the 
successful high school instructor as they are for the successful 
physician or attorney they are sufiicient for reasonable needs. 
There are, too, compensations other than money that make the 
teaching profession desirable. It affords opportunities for 
genuine service, it is attended by dignity and reasonable leisure. 
But to obtain the highest rewards demands an adequate prep- 
aration. The college graduate who enters upon high school 
teaching as the first thing at hand, as a temporary expedient 
or a make-shift, who is not willing to give years of thought and 

^ Since this investigation was made the average wage of skilled and un- 
skilled labor has increased materially, while teachers' salaries have advanced, 
but not in the same proportion. 



50 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

preparation for a serious calling in life, is not likely to find either 
pleasure or profit in teaching. Not only does such a teacher 
suffer because of his unstable purpose and his insufficient prep- 
aration, but the community as a whole suffers, and above all 
those who can least afford it suffer the most, — the boys and 
girls intrusted to his care. 

The Success of the High School Teacher Depends on 
Various Factors. — What are the conditions that contribute 
principally to success in high school teaching? This is a ques- 
tion of great interest to the prospective teacher and to the school 
system. While it cannot be answered in a few words, it may be 
said in general that there is no one cause, or even a relatively 
few causes that determine success completely. However, there 
are a number of factors that clearly are of great significance. 
The most important of these will be discussed in the next few 
pages. Before we can adequately answer the question, however, 
we must find some method of measuring teaching efficiency. 

(a) Success as measured by salary received. — Thorndike ^ has 
used the salaries received by teachers in private schools in the 
same city under free competition as to some extent a measure of 
success in teaching, and from the data studied by him he con- 
cludes that length of experience is not an important factor after 
the first few years. He says, ''So far as the data go, they sup- 
port the hypothesis that the full effect of experience in teaching 
on the efficiency in the work of a private secondary school is 
reached in three years." He finds, on the other hand, that 
salaries in public high schools show a relatively uniform increase 
over a period of twenty-five years, but he attributes the increase 
after the first few years to the practice of cities of paying teachers 
higher salaries in terms of service rather than on a basis of actual 
merit. If it is true that experience in teaching after the initial 
years of service does not tend to increase teaching efficiency, 
this must be due to some adverse cause. The most probable 
1 Bulletin of U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 4 (1909). 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 5 1 

reason for lack of continued improvement is to be found in the 
teacher himself. If he is eager to advance, if he has an open 
mind, if he has the spirit of an inquirer and learner, he should 
grow indefinitely in teaching ability, year by year. 

Thorndike further concludes by studying the reports from 
the public high schools of Ohio, Illinois, and Wisconsin that 
preparation is a factor of weight in determining success. Both 
men and women with a superior preparation are not only paid 
more at the start but show large differences after years of ex- 
perience over those poorly equipped. From this it may be con- 
cluded that while experience alone is not a very important ele- 
ment in success in teaching after the first few years, experience 
combined with an adequate preparation is a cause of consider- 
able potency. ''It is evident that school authorities reward 
the kind of a man or woman who has secured a thorough educa- 
tion," he believes. 

Thorndike is of the opinion that the chief factors in achieving 
success are native ability, and quality of education. A person 
to be a good teacher must have general qualities of intellectual 
and moral excellence and certain specific aptitudes that particu- 
larly fit him to be an instructor of youth, and he must further 
have an education that is of a high grade of excellence. 

L. D. Coffman ^ in a study of the efficiency of elementary and 
of some secondary teachers on the basis of salaries received, 
concludes that a premium is placed upon advanced academic 
and professional training. ''No doubt such training selects 
those who have inborn capacity to profit by it the most, but 
this extra training is their best means of advertising to the world 
their pecuUar native strength." 

In this connection it should be said that not only does there seem 
to be a relation between success and training, but there is an evident 

^ The Social Composition of the Teaching Population, Teachers College, 
Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 41 (191 1). 



52 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

relation between college grades and subsequent teaching ability. 
The college record of a student, both in general academic subjects and 
in subjects particularly related to the profession of teaching, are a 
reasonable indication of what his success as a teacher is likely to be. 
These grades throw some light on v/hether he is a person of superior, 
medium, or inferior ability by nature, and also upon the question of 
how far he has profited by his college course. They are scanned with 
a good deal of care by those who are asked to recommend a college 
graduate for a position in a pubUc or private secondary school, and 
with a considerable degree of justice. 

(b) Success as measured by the judgment of supervising of- 
ficers. — ^A number of attempts have been made to determine 
the qualities of merit that enter into successful teaching by using 
the judgment of superintendents, principals and other super- 
vising officers in regard to the abilities of the teachers under 
their direction. The first study made of high school teachers 
from this point of view was undertaken by A. C. Boyce.-^ Super- 
intendents and principals in thirty-eight different towns and 
cities, mostly in the North Central and Middle Atlantic States 
were asked to rate their high school teachers in order, accord- 
ing to general excellence, placing the best teacher first, the 
next second, and so on to the poorest, and they were further 
asked to rank them according to certain specific qualities such 
as instructional skill, general appearance, health, disciplinl,ry ^'^ 
ability, succe'ss with pupils, adaptafbility, sympathy and a sense 
of humor. The amount of preparation and experience of each • 
teacher was also recorded, and the subjects which were taught « 
by the various teachers. The chief conclusions arrived at were 
that the specific qualities of merit in a high school teacher that 
contribute the most toward his success are instructional skill, 
securing results, stimulation of individuals, intellectual capacity, 
and ability to maintain discipline. Factors of relatively little 

^ Qualities of Merit in Secondary School Teachers, Journal of Educational 
Psychology, Vol. III., pp. 144-157 (1912). 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 53 

importance were general appearance and health. A later study ^ 
by the same investigator confirmed in general these earlier 
results. 

It should be kept in mind that most of the qualities here listed are 
relatively complex. For example, instructional skill is composed of. 
various elements. Boyce lists them under the technique of teaching 
as follows: — Definiteness and clearness of aim, skill in habit forma- 
tion, skill in stimulating thought, skill in teaching how to study, skill* 
in questioning, choice of subject-matter, organization of subjectr. 
matter, skill and care in assignment, skill in motivating work, atten-- 
tion to individual needs. Likewise discipline is a matter that has . 
many different aspects. The immediately following chapters will . 
take up in detail the subject of discipline, and a number of subsequent 
chapters will be devoted to the question of the technique of teaching. 

Boyce further concluded that the best teachers are found in 
the oldest subjects, Latin and mathematics. He finds evidence 
that experience, while contributing to success in teaching, is 
not so important a factor as has often been supposed, and that 
advanced work in college or university and professional train- 
ing are definitely related to success in high school teaching. 

The term "personality" is often vaguely used to indicate a quality 
highly essential to the success of the teacher. F. L. Clapp ^ attempted 
to give this term a more specific meaning by securing from one hun- 
dred experienced superintendents and principals lists of ten specific 
qualities which entered into the personality of the teacher. These 
quahties, in the order of their importance, were found to be, — address, 
personal appearance, optimism, reserve, enthusiasm, fairness, sin- 
cerity, s>Tiipathy, vitality, scholarship. 

The negative side of the question of what constitutes a suc- 
cessful high school teacher has been worked out by several in- 

^ See Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society far the Study of Education y 
part II., pp. 66-67 (1915)- 

2 See Bagley, School Discipline, pp. 30-35 (191 5). 



54 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

vestigators by securing data from superintendents and prin- 
cipals, as to the causes of failure of members of the teaching 
staff. These in general point to conclusions similar to those 
obtained from approaching the question of excellence from the 
positive side, and show the great importance of discipline, in- 
structional skill, and a strong personality. 

Cleda Moses ^ places poor instruction as the chief cause of failure 

' among secondary teachers. She finds further that a weak personality 

coupled with poor discipline were important elements contributing 

to failure. Lack of sympathy, nervousness, deficiency in social quaH- 

ties and deceitfulness were also causes. 

Henry Buellesfield ^ gives the chief causes of failure among teachers 
of all grades in the order of their importance as follows: — Weakness 
in discipline, lack of judgment, deficiency of scholarship, poor instruc- 
tional methods, insufiiciency of daily preparation, lack of industry, 
lack of sympathy, nervousness and deficiency in social qualities. A 
number of such factors as unprofessional attitudes, disloyalty, de- 
ceit, personal immorality and the like when grouped together indicate 
that moral attitudes and practices are to be considered as playing a 
r61e in success or failure. The fact that no more teachers failed for 
these reasons indicates that in the sterling elements of character 
teachers are as a rule a selected group. Buellesfield found also that 
initial experience was significant in determining whether a teacher 
failed or succeeded. Forty-two per cent, of the failures among high 
school teachers occurred during their first year of service, and ninety- 
four per cent, during the first four years. It is evident that these 
first years of service are the critical years during which the constitu- 
tionally unfit and the poorly prepared teachers are eliminated. Had 
these unsuccessful teachers had a year of practice teaching under 
proper supervision it would have been better for them, their pupils, 
and the community. Doubtless some of these then would have 
entered upon teaching with sufficient preliminary training to have 
succeeded, while the evidently incapable would never have secured 
appointments. 

1 School and Home Education, January, 191 4. 

2 Educational Administration and Supervision, September, 1915. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 55 

Considering the teachers who failed in reference to the subjects 
taught by them Buellesfield discovered that "by far the most failures 
occur among teachers of English; science, mathematics, history, 
Latin, manual training, domestic science, and German follow in the 
order given, more than one-fourth of all the failures in the high school 
being charged to EngHsh." This is to be explained from the fact that 
tliere are more teachers of English than of other high school subjects; 
that there are peculiar difficulties in instruction in English that are 
not found to the same extent in other subjects, and that a thorough 
preparation is not demanded of English teachers, it being too often 
assumed that any college graduate can teach the mother tongue. 

(c) Sticcess as measured by the opinion of pupils. — The success 
of the teacher is determined in no small measure by the opinion 
of his pupils in regard to him. The teacher who is well liked and 
respected has better discipline and larger opportunities of ob- 
taining results than has the teacher who is out of sjrmpathy with 
his pupils. W. F. Book ^ obtained statements from several 
hundred high school students as to the kind of teacher that they 
liked best. The best and most helpful teachers were described 
as "pleasant, cheerful, optimistic, enthusiastic, young, etc." 
These teachers w^ere helpful, guiding and directing their pupils; 
they were reasonable, considerate of a pupil's feelings, fair, just, 
patient and kind; never nervous, irritable, over-particular, 
cranky, sarcastic, or thoughtless. 

In a recent study made by Grace E. Bird ^ results similar to those 
secured by Book were obtained. Miss Bird asked three hundred and 
ninety-two pupils to state the qualities that they liked best in their 
high school teachers. The two hundred and fifty-three boys replying 
mentioned most frequently in the order named the following quali- 
ties: — Fairness, kindness, disciplinary control, patience, humor, good 

^The high school teacher from the pupil's point of view. Fed. Sent., 
Vol. XIT., pp. 239-288 (1905). 

' This study was made in connection with the Seminary of Experimental 
Education at Brown University. See Pupils' Estimates of Teachers, Jour- 
nal of Ed. Psych., Jan., 1917. 



56 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

temper, social ability, knowledge of subject, clearness of explanation 
and neatness. The order of preference for the girls replying was 
kindness, disciplinary control, patience, humor, fairness, clearness of 
explanation, neatness, good temper, and sociability. One of the 
striking results of the study was the fact that nearly two-thirds of 
the girls replying mentioned kindness as a quality to be found in an 
ideal teacher. The boys did not agree with any such unanimity in 
regard to any single quality, about one-quarter of them mentioning 
fairness, and a little over one-fifth kindness. If kindness, patience, 
good temper, humor and sociability are combined, we find these 
qualities mentioned by nearly half of the boys, and by all of the girls, 
clearly showing that the kind, social and good-natured teacher is 
generally liked. Those quaHties that are related to instructional 
skill — knowledge of subject, clearness of explanation, and neatness 
are regarded as important by both boys and girls, but are mentioned 
more frequently by the latter, about one-sixth of the boys and over 
one-half of the girls referring to these requirements. On the whole 
the study shows a high correlation between the judgment of boys 
and girls as to what constitutes a good teacher. Expressed by the 
Pearson coefficient it is .8. 

Professional Attitudes and Ideals are Important Factors 
in the Success of the Teacher. — No matter what general and 
special abilities the teacher possesses, no matter what prepara- 
tion the teacher has received, he cannot hope to realize his 
highest possibilities unless he has the right attitude toward his 
calling. Professional ideals determine to a considerable degree 
whether he is to be a success or a failure. 

Chief among these ideals is that of service. The teacher should 
regard himself as a public servant, and like the physician should 
be ready to respond to the call of duty whenever it may come. 
He must have a real desire to help his pupils and to advance the 
educational interests of the commimity in which he lives. While 
teachers may organize to promote their higher professional 
interests, they cannot consistently combine to advance their 
narrowly selfish aims. 



THE HIGH SCHOOL TEACHER 57 

The ideal of loyalty is closely connected with that of service. 
The teacher must be loyal to his profession, his colleagues, and 
those placed in authority above him. While he has a right to 
express his honest opinions in regard to matters of educational 
policies, and while often it is his duty to do so, he must refrain 
from all carping and secret criticism of school-boards, principals 
and supervising officers. When he cannot cooperate honestly 
and sincerely with his co-workers his usefulness in the com- 
munity is generally at an end. 

No teacher can reach his highest efficiency without high 
standards of attainment. He must seek by every legitimate 
means to advance his professional standing. He must be ambi- 
tious to increase his scholarly knowledge, his general culture, and 
his technical ability. He must continue to be a learner. When- 
ever possible he should visit other schools, attend teachers' 
gatherings, extension courses, and simimer sessions. He should 
under any circumstance be a subscriber to at least one journal 
in the field of secondary education and to a second in his special 
field of instruction. He should read the best books appearing 
each year in the field of educational theory and practice, and 
should be himself an occasional contributor to educational 
literature. The teacher who has the attitude that his college 
course has provided him with all of the knowledge and most of 
the skill necessary for his professional career, can never achieve 
genuine success. 

Summary of the Foregoing Discussion. — From the fore- 
going discussion it is possible to give a fairly accurate picture of 
the ideal secondary teacher. This composite photograph would 
be that of a man (or woman) possessing the following abilities 
and characteristics: — 

He would be a man of sterling character, superior intelligence, 
and some special aptitude for teaching; he would have an 
adequate preparation both in general and special subject-matter 
and in professional studies, including practice teaching, taken 



58 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

if possible during a year of special advanced study following the 
completion of a four-year course in a standard college; he would 
also have had several years of successful experience as a teacher, 
and would have acquired instructional skill and disciplinary 
control; he would possess an energetic personality, vital yet well 
balanced; he would have a genuine interest in his pupils, a dis- 
position patient, sympathetic, genial and good-natured, yet 
with poise, dignity and reserve; he would possess optimism and 
capacity for inspiring enthusiasm; he would be absolutely fair 
in his treatment of all, and he would not only be fair, but he 
would have the ability of making his pupils realize that he is 
fair; he would be consistent in attitude, frank and open, free 
from subterfuge and deceit, his whole personality would be 
tempered by a genuine sense of humor and an appreciation of 
life, especially life as his pupils see it and live it; finally he would 
be inspired with the highest personal and professional ideals of 
conduct and attainment. Probably no teacher ever possessed 
all of these qualities in their fullest strength, but certainly no 
teacher ever made a marked success in his calling who did not 
have in his make-up a considerable number of these excellences 
and at least a few of them in a superior degree. 



CHAPTER IV 

DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. — INDIRECT CONTROL 

The Problem of Discipline is of Primary Importance for 
the American High School Teacher. — It has been pointed out 
in the discussions of the preceding chapter that ability to control 
the class is one of the chief qualities of merit in the high school 
teacher, while lack of this ability is among the foremost causes of 
failure among teachers. The problem of class control is im- 
portant for every teacher and in every grade of instruction. 
Unless the class is reasonably attentive and docile, nothing 
worth while can be accomplished, no matter how eflScient in 
other respects the teacher may be. However, the question of 
discipHne is a more pressing problem for the American than for 
the European secondary teacher. The reasons for this contrast 
are to be found largely in the essential difference between our 
conception of the scope and purpose of secondary education and 
that of Europe, and this raises one of the gravest problems in 
regard to the future of our high schools. 

As a Rule the Pupil in our High Schools Lacks a Com- 
pelling Motive. — In our eagerness to make secondary education 
universal, in our desire to appeal to all varieties of interests and 
all grades of ability, in our over-emphasis of the value of spon- 
taneity as a dynamic force in learning, we have neglected to 
emphasize high standards and rigorous requirements. The 
great majority of high school pupils can secure a passing grade 
with a minimum of study. Hard work is not a necessity for 
them. They have time to be inattentive and disorderly if they 
are so inclined. On the other hand, the pupils in the secondary 
schools of Germany and France must work if they succeed; and 

59 



6o INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

hard, honest work is a compelling motive in the classroom that 
makes serious disorder well nigh an impossibility. In addition 
to this, success or failure in the school career means vastly more 
to the European secondary pupil than it does to the American 
boy or girl. Failure in the high school is often a mere incident of 
trivial significance; failure in the Gymnasium or Lysee is a 
tragedy. If the obtaining of a passing grade signified as much to 
our high school pupils as it does to a West Point cadet the dis- 
ciplinary problems of our secondary schools would largely dis- 
appear. 

In far too Many Cases the Attitude of the Home and the 
Community Toward the Work of the Pupil Lacks Serious- 
ness. — Not only do the high schools themselves fail to insist on 
hard work and high standards, but also the parents and friends 
of the pupils adopt the same indulgent attitude toward the 
boys and girls under their direction and control. Indeed, many 
teachers find to their sorrow that when they attempt to insist on 
thorough work from their pupils, they receive in their endeavors 
no support from the home. The social attitude toward the work 
of the pupil in the secondary school of Europe is different. 
There the pupil finds no sympathy for delinquencies. It is there 
the fashion ^ to do good work, it is the fashion to be respectful, 
docile, and industrious. 

The High School Teacher Must of his own Initiative 
Attempt to Create the Proper Attitude Towards School 
Work. — Because of these reasons it becomes necessary for 
the high school teacher often to make determined efforts to 
secure the reasonable attention and proper behavior on the part 
of the members of his class that he cannot assume in advance 

^ W. C. Bagley in his book on School Discipline (1915), defines the well- 
disciplined school as "one in which the 'fashion' or 'mode' of good order, 
courteous behavior, and aggressive industry has been firmly established." 
This fashion cannot be set up by the school alone; it must be supported and 
supplemented by a corresponding sentiment in the home. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 6 1 

exists. Thus it frequently happens that good order, which 
should be merely the incident and condition of good teaching, is 
forced upon the instructor of our American boys and girls as the 
chief problem in the conduct of his classes. No teacher can 
safely ignore this problem, least of all the novice in teaching who 
will often find a disposition to "try him out" on the part of the 
class, simply because he is a new and inexperienced teacher. 

The importance of the problem of discipline should, however, not 
be over-emphasized to the point of making the new teacher feel that 
it is the one overwhelming consideration that confronts him. As he 
progresses in his acquaintance with his pupils and in the skill of his 
instruction, disciplinary questions will not be largely in the focus of 
his attention, and even at the beginning of his career he should have 
no serious trouble in a school that on the whole has the right attitude, 
if he possesses vigor, courage, and common-sense. During the past 
five years the writer has visited hundreds of classes in many different 
high schools and academies, and he has found the poorly disciplined 
class exceptional. Especially in the schools that have wise and capa- 
ble principals, the novice in secondary teaching need have no fear, if 
he does his share, that he will fail because of the poor discipline of his 
classes. 

In the Best Controlled Class the Problem of Discipline is 
not Obvious. — It is a frequent comment made by observers of 
classes in the high school that they can say nothing about dis- 
cipline because there is no evidence of discipline. They report 
that the pupils seem attentive and interested and that there is 
no problem of order to engage the teacher and distract him 
from his work with the class. However, when the engine is run- 
ning smoothly, without noise and friction, it is because the en- 
gineer has inspected, adjusted, and oiled his machinery in ad- 
vance. A smoothly running class is no more of an accident 
than is a smoothly running machine. "It is a paradox of the 
well-disciplined school," says Bagley,^ "that discipHne 'is con- 

^ Op. clt., p. I. 



62 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

spicuous by its absence.'" However, it is no longer a paradox 
when we examine beneath the surface, and discover the causes 
that have brought about order, attention, and studiousness. 
Good discipHne is never a matter of chance. It is prepared for, 
either consciously or unconsciously, by the teacher in advance 
of the class situation. This feature of class management may 
be called indirect discipline, discipline that is in a sense a by- 
product, discipHne that exists not because it has been demanded 
or directly enforced, but because other classroom and school 
conditions exist that make the opportunities for inattention 
and misbehavior sHght. The teacher who secures this indirect 
discipHne has the best discipHned class. It wiU be worth our 
while to inquire into some of the causes that contribute to this 
most desirable result. 

(a) The smoothly-running class is the class in which all of the 
pupils are doing rigorous mental work, — In our previous discus- 
sion we have said that one compelHng motive that makes for 
good order is an attitude of serious work on the part of the class. 
The teacher who wishes to secure good order will do aU in his 
power to 4{;eep the individuals mentally alert; he will see to it 
that they have few idle moments during the class period. How 
to secure this mental alertness is a question worthy of discussion. 

Here we may put down as the first law^ or maxim, — "Begin 
each class exercise with vigor and promptness." ^ Impress upon 
the pupils at the start that no time is to be lost, that for both 
teacher and pupil it is to be a working hour. For this reason 
the teacher should have some method of taking the class-roll 
promptly; he should have all materials that are necessary to 
begin the work at hand; books, papers, writing tablets and the 
like should be on the pupils' desks, materials for presentation on 
the blackboard should, as far as possible, be placed there in 
advance. If something is to be written on the board at the 
beginning of the hour it is better to ask one or more members 
1 See Chapter XVII., p. 375. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 63 

of the class to do this than to have the teacher take this time 
himself. The beginning of the hour should not be used for the 
purpose of consulting with individual members of the class. 
Above all the teacher should always know just where the day's 
assignment begins, he should never turn over the pages of the 
text-book in an attempt to locate the lesson, or be compelled 
to ask the class where they stopped at the end of the preceding 
recitation. 

It has been the writer's experience that many classes in laboratory 
science are woefully slow in getting started. It is the practice of 
some instructors to require the pupils to spend from ten to fifteen 
minutes at the beginning of the hour in reading their manual, and in 
getting together their materials. The result is that they generally 
enter upon their laboratory work in anything but an aggressive 
spirit. One of the worst classes that I have ever observed both from 
the standpoint of order and of effective instruction was a class of this 
type. The pupils on entering the laboratory spent from ten to twenty 
minutes in finding out what they were expected to do; they then 
spent even a greater amoimt of time in finding their apparatus, setting 
it up, and getting it to work. Needless to say that the brief time 
that remained for actually doing the work was spent in dawdling and 
shilly-shally when it was not devoted to positive disorder. The total 
(double) period of eighty minutes was cut short at the end by the 
requirement of writing up the note-books during the laboratory 
period. This reduced the working time by a further fifteen minutes, 
so that it actually happened that a considerable niunber of the pupils 
did not spend a half-hour in actually doing the work of experimenta- 
tion for which an hour and twenty minutes was supposed to be de- 
voted. The waste involved in the laboratory exercise of this type 
will be discussed more at length in a following chapter.^ 

In striking contrast to the laboratory exercise just described is one 
recently observed by the writer in which the entire double period 
was spent in genuine experimentation. The subject was physics, and 
the recitation preceding the laboratory exercise had been employed 

^ See Chapter VII., p. 132. 



64 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

by the instructor in definite preparation for the experimental work. 
When the pupils assembled in the laboratory they found all of the 
necessary materials for the experiment at hand. They began at once 
to set up their apparatus and in less than five minutes all were busily 
engaged in working on their experiment. The period was so super- 
vised by the instructor and two "student foremen" that the entire 
class was kept busy for the whole period. A few of the more intelli- 
gent and skilful pupils finished the required exercise in about sixty 
minutes, and these were given additional work. Three pupils failed 
to complete the work at the end of the period, but they were required 
to use the next free period at their disposal for this purpose. Brief 
notes were taken by the pupils during the course of the experimenta- 
tion, and these notes were amplified and carefully written up during 
a subsequent period of supervised study. 

The second maxim reads, — "Strive to keep each member of 
the class busy during the entire period." There should be no 
pauses of length during the recitation. What has already been 
said about having materials at hand when necessary, about time 
spent on writing on the blackboard, about conversations with 
individual pupils, should be observed here. It frequently hap- 
pens that a teacher stops the more rigorous routine of the class 
work to discuss at some length some matter of passing interest 
or to comment on the work of a single pupil. At such times 
there is an obvious letting up of the attention, and not only 
is the time employed by the teacher in making these comments 
largely wasted, but also there is a distinct waste in again adapt- 
ing the attention to the more strenuous work of the hour. In 
the case of the able teacher, who has his class under control, the 
loss is merely that of the time spent; but for the teacher who 
is at all weak in discipline such periods are fraught with grave 
dangers. 

There are various devices of a specific nature that the teacher may 
legitimately use to keep the class alert, particularly since they ar6 
not merely of value in securing good order, but they are likewise to 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 65 

be often recommended from the standpoint of correct method. These 
will be but briefly mentioned here, as they are to be discussed more in 
detail in later portions of this book. 

Written work is one of the most important of these. It is a com- 
mon experience to observe a class that is inattentive and at times in 
positive disorder totally change its attitude when a brief test or some 
other form of written exercise is demanded. Indeed with an unruly 
class it is at times tlie only potent method of quelling disorder. Writ- 
ten work has a value over oral work for other reasons, and these will 
be considered in their proper place. 

It is generally desirable in assigning written work to the class to 
give a sufficient quantity to keep all of the pupils busy all of the time. 
For example, in a written exercise in algebra enough problems and 
examples should be given so that the more rapid pupils will not finish 
ahead of the time devoted to the exercise. The usual practice is to 
give to the class a definite number of such exercises, as a rule no 
more than the pupil of medium ability can work out. As a result a 
considerable number of the class finish perhaps from one to five 
minutes ahead of the slower pupils, and thus have a considerable 
period unoccupied. It is a better practice to assign to the class an 
ample amount of work for all, with the instructions to work as rapidly 
and as accurately as possible. 

Rapid questioning is also important in securing the proper sort of 
attention. Seldom should one pupil be asked a series of questions 
for any length of time, and every member of the class should be ac- 
customed to pay such attention at all points in the recitation that he 
can take up the work where the one who is reciting has left off. It is 
likewise advantageous to ask the question of the whole class, later 
designating the particular pupil who is to reply. The writer has re- 
cently suggested to a teacher of Latin a procedure based on this 
principle, and it seems to have worked well. The Latin to be trans- 
lated is first read carefully by the teacher with the attention of the 
entire class directed toward it, then there is a pause of from ten to 
fifteen seconds in which the individual members of the class are en- 
gaged in silent translation, and at the conclusion of this period one 
member of the class is called upon to read the sentence, with the un- 
derstanding that if he does not do so with reasonable fluency, another 



66 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

pupil will be asked to take his place. The result has been a better 
translation, better general attention, and no loss in the total time 
consumed for this part of the work. In connection with the question 
of the technique of this phase of the class work it need hardly be 
said that it is not a proper practice to spend time in attempting to 
drag statements from pupils when they have neither the knowledge 
nor thinking ability to answer them in a reasonable time. It is like- 
wise obviously an error to call upon pupils in any regular order, or to 
have any general rule about the number of questions that shall be 
asked a single pupil when reciting. ^ 

Holding all members of the class responsible for the errors made 
by pupils reciting is another method of securing attention. It is 
generally desirable to do this, but it should not be carried to the 
extent of developing a spirit of criticism on the part of the class toward 
the pupil who is reciting, or of encouraging many trivial criticisms. 
This method is sometimes employed — the pupils who have noted an 
error in a recitation stand up or raise their hands to correct such 
errors at the conclusion of the recitation. Under such conditions the 
over-critical spirit is in danger of being developed. The writer has 
observed this fault particularly in the elementary school, where the 
practice is common. 

In many classes it is possible advantageously to develop the prac- 
tice of silent reading in connection with later writing down or stating 
orally the ideas obtained from this reading. This is often one of the 
best ways of developing a new lesson in history, particularly in con- 
nection with teaching the pupils how to study history. It is also ap- 
plicable to a considerable amount of the work in English literature. 
It is often a good practice to have the members of a class read over a 
problem in mathematics, an experiment in science, or a paragraph in 
a foreign language in order to get the proper orientation before start- 
ing on more detailed work. Clearly, when pupils are working in this 
way they are likely to give a fairly high grade of attention and to 
engage in no positive disorder. ^ 

It should be said finally that the teacher has a right to expect and 
demand reasonable attention on the part of his pupils. He cannot, 

1 See Chapter XV., p. 315. 2 See Chapter XVII., p. 377. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 67 

however energetic his personality and however great his instruc- 
tional skill, keep the interest of all of his pupils all of the time on the 
subject-matter of instruction. If they have not acquired the habit of 
giving active attention there will be many lapses of considerable 
length. While it is his duty to make every recitation as vital as pos- 
sible, the teacher is not to be considered as primarily an entertainer. 
From the very beginning he should assume the attitude of expecting 
the undivided attention of the class during the entire recitation 
period, and he should insist constantly that such attention be given. 
If he initiates the proper attitudes and the right habits at the start 
he will j&nd that he has solved many of his difficulties. 

Closely connected with the question of securing mental alert- 
ness during the entire class period is a third maxim which reads, 
— "Have some system of holding every member of the class 
responsible for all that takes place during the class period." 
Impress upon the class that the recitation is for them in a large 
measure a study period; make the pupils feel that here they 
have the opportunity to acquire new knowledge and skill and to 
perfect themselves in knowledge and skill already partly ac- 
quired. It is for the interests of all that the class become accus- 
tomed to the idea that a class period is not primarily for the 
purpose of discovering what the individual pupils have pre- 
viously learned, but that its chief function is to add something 
to what they already have acquired. The teacher should strive 
in every way possible to make the pupils realize that it is to 
their great advantage to give undivided attention during the 
period. 

One method of securing this result is to have at the end of each 
recitation a written quiz of from five_to_ten minutes in length in which 
the pupils are examined on some of the more important matters that 
have been brought out during the period. ^ To make this quiz effec- 
tive it should be comprehensive and fair in its nature and should be 
carefully marked by the teacher. Further, pupils who fail on the quiz 

^ See Chapter VIII., p. 172. 



68 iNTRODtTCnON TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

shouKl bo rcquiivd to make up the work oulsiilo of regular school 
hours. It' the cUiss work is of the nature of a demonstration the pui>ils 
should be required to write a brief description ot what has liappened 
and tell its signitieance. If the teacher uses tlie lecture method, he 
sliould insist on accurate notes carefully written up and reconstructed 
in terms of the pupil's own thinking and in his own language. It 
would be possible to cx)rrelato some of the work of this nature with the 
theme requirement of the English courses. In some instances atten- 
tion has been stimulated by calling upon several pupils at the end of 
the class period to ask questions of their mates basal on what has 
been developai during the recitation. Tl^e chief objection to using 
this method generally is that the questioners are not apt to frame 
their questions with sutlicient skill, and often fail to emphasize the 
most important jxirts of the lesson. In some classes in the elemen- 
tar\* school, pupils are askcxi to write out questions during the class 
period concerning matters that are Uien being discussed. Some 
minutes at the end of the period are usc\i in having the pupils put the 
questions. A pupil rises, reads a question and calls upon a particular 
member of the class to answer it. If the answer is correctly given, 
the pupil replying is then permitted to ask a question that he has 
prepared. 

The fourth jnaxim for securing and holding the attention of 
the class may be stated thus, — "The teacher must hear all and 
see all that is happening in the class all of the time." The teacher 
who hopes to hold attention and maintain discipline must be 
alert. An experienced teacher in a small class may relax at 
times with safety, but the young teacher must ahva}-^ be vigi- 
lant. It is not safe to make universally binding rules in regard 
to classroom practices, but the beginning teacher will be less 
hkely to get into disciplinary ditiicuhics if he makes it a practice 
to stand when teaching. He should also move about freely, 
and although he sliould keep in front of the class when he is 
directing it, he may at such times as pupils are reciting to tlie 
class or demonstratine: at the board move about between the 
seats or even stand at the rear of the rocmi. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 69 

It hardly needs to he added that the teacher must not only see all 
and hear all, but that he should actively interfere when there Is need. 
While it is true that as a rule a pupil will give better attention when 
he finds the teacher observing hinri than when he believes that he is 
not noticed, if he finds that nothing happeris on such occasions he 
will soon disregard the teacher on all occasions. The principle of 
watchful waiting is not likely to succeed in schwjl discipline. Here, 
how(;ver, we are touching on the j>ositive side of the problem of class 
control, and this we must consider in a later chapter. 

(b) In the smoothly running class the pupils are interested in 
their work. — The teacher who makes his subject interesting has 
as a rule few disci[)linary problems to solve. This is almost a 
truism. All educational reformers have emphasized the im- 
portance of interest in the work of the school if the best results 
are to be secured. However, to insist that school work shall be 
made interesting is in itself of little value from the simple fact 
that this demand at the same time means so much and so little. 
It means much in the sense that adequately to work out a sys- 
tem of instruction on the basis of the doctrine of interest would 
require not only a most profound educational philosophy but 
also an acquaintance of the most intimate character with the 
pupil and the subject-matter of every grade of instruction, 
coupled with a practical insight of unusual penetration. It 
means little in the sense that as merely stated it is the most un- 
f)rorjtable of educational platitudes. It savors of the "dark 
ages" in education and of the days when appeal was made to a 
psychology that was at the same time common-place and in- 
adequate. In the brief limits of this chapter the writer cannot 
hope to give a systematic or extended treatment of this im- 
portant question. The aim will be merely in the first place to 
attempt to clear up a few fundamental misunderstandings in 
regard to interest and then to suggest briefly some of the means 
by which a legitimate interest may be secured. 

At the outset of the discussion I wish to make this point def- 



70 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

inite and clear, namely, — Interest is not mere entertainment. 
Many teachers have thought that when they were urged to 
interest their pupils they were expected to amuse them. Now 
this is an extremely difficult thing to do in the first place; again 
if it were possible it would mean resorting to devices that lawer 
the quality of the instruction, and the value of the subject- 
matter, and finally the teacher would be compelled constantly 
to intensify the nature of the appeals made to-the pupils for 
their entertainment. The original efforts to amuse, successful 
at first, would soon lose their potency. In the end the pupils 
would become hlase, and incapable of obtaining real pleasure 
from any of the methods that the ingenuity of a ''soft pedagogy '^ 
would be able to devise. The teacher must remember that his 
first duty is to teach. He cannot hope to rival the "movies" 
or the circus, and it is not his business to do this if he could. 

No single factor has brought the profession of education into greater 
distrust, amounting at times to contempt, than this false conception 
of the doctrine of interest, and few conceptions have done it more 
practical harm in classroom procedure. A short time ago I observed 
a class in general science in which the teacher was evidently working 
on the theory that it was his business to amuse the class rather than 
to give them important and useful knowledge in regard to the world 
about them. He said a great deal about the spectacular features of 
aeronautics, particularly the uses of aeroplanes in the Great War, 
but he gave no hint of any scientific principles in their construction. 
It appeared that the general topic for consideration was the air, and 
later he told about great storms and other remarkable happenings. 
His general principle of procedure seemed to be to select as many 
spectacular facts as he could gather in regard to air and things that 
happened in the air, but he had no conception of a scientific treatment 
of this topic. The class seemed moderately interested in the discus- 
sion, but I have seen far greater interest in classes where the teacher 
thought only about the subject and its clear and adequate presenta- 
tion. Indeed, on the same day I chanced to visit an advanced class 
in Greek in one of those few high schools that continue to emphasize 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 7 1 

the subject, and here I witnessed real enthusiasm in the translation 
at sight of a reasonably difficult passage from Plato. There was here 
no attempt to amuse or entertain, only to instruct, but there was 
intense interest in the work and it was hard work, too, demanding 
concentration of a high order. 

Again it should be remembered that interest is not opposed to 
effort. On the contrary, the highest grades of interest are ac- 
companied by an expenditure of strenuous effort. Both mental 
and physical work may be interesting. Further, work may not 
only be accompanied by interest, but wholesome work usually 
engenders interest. The teacher who constantly strives to 
make his subject easy will in the end destroy a vital interest in 
that subject. For this reason every pupil should be given a real 
task, something that is a challenge to his ability, that calls forth 
genuine endeavor. 

It is a common experience that school subjects that require an 
honest mental reaction are preferred by pupils of good or fair ability 
to those that make no demands on the learner. ''Snap courses" 
may be at times selected, but they are seldom favorite subjects of 
study. In this connection I recall two courses in EngUsh literature. 
In one the pupils did Httle more than absorb. They were asked 
to read a certain number of books outside of the class, and to make 
brief and prefunctory reports on their reading. The class work needed 
practically no preparation, and the discussion in the class demanded 
no mental effort on the part of the pupils. The teacher was aiming to 
inculcate in the minds of his pupils an appreciation of literature, and 
it was his theory that appreciation could be gained only through in- 
direct means. It was his belief that if he directed the activities of the 
class, and required them definitely to do anything, the aesthetic value 
of the subject-matter would be destroyed. As a result he gained 
neither appreciation nor interest. 

In the second class the teacher aimed like-wise to create in his pupils 
a real love of English, but he had concrete aims as to how this should 
be accompHshed. He not only required his pupils to read but he re- 



72 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

quired them to react in a definite way to what they read. The as- 
signments included the answering of specific questions in regard to 
what they read. These questions were framed so as to arouse thought, 
promote discernment, and stimulate curiosity. Each lesson required, 
on the average, an hour's preparation outside of the class period, and 
during the recitation the pupils were stimulated to mental activity 
for a large part of the time. The interest i^ this class was very evi- 
dent. The pupils according to their other school records possessed 
no greater ability than the pupils in the first course discussed, but 
they responded eagerly to a subject that required them to do sus- 
tained mental work. 

When we consider the topic of interest from the point of view 
of circumstances that condition it, we find many legitimate 
appeals that may be made by teachers of every subject in 
the curriculum, appeals that do not destroy the value of the 
subject as such, and which generally enhance its worth to 
the pupil. We need not here discuss in detail the various 
ways in which interest may be aroused, but we can point 
out in passing some of the more obvious aspects of the 
question. 

In Chapter II. several important instincts that show them- 
selves with particular force during the adolescent period were 
considered, particularly in their relation to the problems of 
instruction and discipline. We saw that the sex instinct em- 
phasizes grave questions in regard to mental hygiene and moral 
training; that the "migratory instinct" must be met by making 
school conditions attractive; that the "social instinct" in its 
various forms must be satisfied in the school life in general and 
considered in classroom instruction; that the tendency to ex- 
plore, to pry into and to question, the so-called "instinct of 
curiosity," must be so directed in connection with the various 
subjects of instruction that it becomes a valuable stimulus in 
learning; that the impulse to manipulate can be aroused in such 
courses as manual training. This latter tendency develops under 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 73 

proper guidance into what Veblen ^ has termed the 'instinct of 
workmanship" and the desire for excellence. 

Another original tendency of significance in learning is the 
impulse to hoard and collect. This is an important aspect of 
the desire for possession, "the property instinct." yhe original 
forms of behavior that show themselves in attempts to excel and 
master, roughly termed the "instinct of rivalry" are of great 
importance in motivating school work. Thorndike ^ lists among 
the important human tendencies the " satisfyingness of mental 
control," as he terms it. "To do something and have something 
happen as a consequence is," he affirms, " other things being 
equal, instinctively satisf3ang." He relates this tendency to 
what Lindley^ has called "the general impulse or instinct to 
exercise the intelligence as such." In this original tendency we 
find the reason for the pleasure that comes in playing an in- 
tellectual game when once it is mastered. In other words a 
habit of intellectual skill has been formed, and it is a law of 
original nature that the exercise of a habit in and of itself is 
pleasurable. This may be termed the propensity of habit. 

The instinct of joy in intellectual mastery, of pleasure in playing 
the game when once you know how, has great significance in the 
motivation of school work. It is clear that pupils as a rule like to 
use their minds when they can use them well, and they find happiness 
in mental work when once they have become masters of it. School 
tasks are a drudgery only when they are inefiiciently performed. 
Observe a class in mental arithmetic in the elementary school. They 
enter into the rapid drill with a zest that is genuine. The most ab- 
stract subject may become fascinating to those who have a real knowl- 
edge and comprehension of what it signifies. Greek when thoroughly 
taught may arouse as much interest as manual training or stenog- 

* The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899). 
2 E. L. Thorndike, Educational Psychology, Vol. I. (1913). 
' E. H. Lindley, A study of puzzles, American Journal of Psychology^ Vol. 
VIII., pp. 434-493 (1897). 



74 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

raphy, algebra may be as pleasurable as cooking, and formal gram- 
mar as entertaining as stories of adventure. If a school subject is 
worth while it must be taught well, and the teacher must do all in 
his power to see that the pupils master the first stages of the work, in 
order that they may acquire that fundamental skill and knowledge 
that is absolutely requisite for subsequent interest and enjoyment. 

The pleasure that is derived from manipulation, construction, and 
excellence in workmanship is closely aUied to the satisfyingness of 
mental activity. It may be thought of as the motor aspect of intel- 
lectual skill. We have already spoken of its gratification in courses 
in the manual arts, which are favorite school subjects for a large 
number of boys. However, there are other subjects in the high school 
that afford an opportunity for the expression of this tendency. The 
most obvious of these are the courses in household arts for the girls. 
Drawing, painting, and those aspects of laboratory science that in- 
volve the construction and manipulation of apparatus, give oppor- 
tunity likewise for the expression of this tendency. It is further pos- 
sible to appeal to the constructive instinct in subjects that at the 
first glance seem to demand Httle more than intellectual skill. Pupils 
may be required to model in clay in courses in biological science in 
order that they may work out in three dimensions those forms of 
embryology and anatomy that are difficult to grasp through drawings 
or other methods of presentation in two-dimensional space. Work 
of this type has been developed in the biological laboratory at Brown 
University with most satisfactory results, and it could easily be 
adapted to instruction in similar courses in the high school. In many 
subjects it is possible to require the pupils to construct charts, dia- 
grams, and other graphic representations that aid in the compre- 
hension of facts and principles, in themselves formal and abstract. 
In geometry, there is a splendid opportunity for developing its con- 
structional features; map drawing may be made an important adjunct 
to the teaching of history; distribution graphs and similar devices 
aid in the understanding of social and economic questions; even a 
well-kept note-book in courses in literature may give an added pleas- 
ure in, as well as a better comprehension of, much of the work done.^ 

The "hoarding and collecting instinct" and the desire to possess 
^ See Chapter XII., p. 249. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 75 

have been appealed to, particularly in elementary education, in such 
subjects as nature study, in which the making of collections is an 
important part of the work. These instincts can hkewise furnish 
motives for work in many fields of high school instruction as well. 
Closely connected with the tendency to collect and hoard is the desire 
to possess. This impulse may be appealed to in various ways. For 
example, it is generally considered desirable in courses in the manual 
arts to require pupils to make articles for themselves or their friends; 
in the domestic arts, girls often make their own dresses and hats. In 
courses in agriculture, pupils are required in connection with the 
practical work to cultivate their own gardens and plots of land. This 
principle may be extended to the "academic courses." In physics, 
pupils may construct scientific apparatus for their own use, or for the 
use of the class or the school. One of the most enthusiastic classes 
in this subject that the writer has observed, partly made and entirely 
installed an outfit in wireless telegraphy. In some high schools 
pupils write and print a school paper; at times they construct scenery 
for dramatic representations; in some instances, as we have already 
seen, they have used the expert skill, developed through vocational 
courses, to run a cafeteria, or improve the athletic ground. 

Of the remaining original tendencies spoken of above, the instinct y^ 
to surpass others, to excel, to be a leader, is probably the most com- 
pelling. Many pupils hold themselves down to disagreeable intellec- 
tual tasks in order to get high marks, to improve their previous records, 
or to stand above their fellows. This innate impulse toward rivalry . 
when expressed in moderation is wholesome and should be encouraged./ j 
If it leads to hard feelings, unfair methods, and unsportsmanlike 
conduct, it needs to be checked. Marks are the objective expression 
of school attainment, and it is natural and desirable that the pupil 
should be interested in his class standing. Marks are an important 
means of motivating school work. 

In Chapter 11. we discussed in connection with the tendencies 
of adolescence less directly associated with instinct, the voca- 
tional interests, and pointed out their great importance in the 
motivation of school work. We further saw that intellectual 
interests of various sorts may make a strong appeal. Among 



76 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

these were discussed the problem interest, the reading interest, 
and the interests in beauty, morality, and religion. In further 
elaboration of the question of interest in connection with the 
activities of tlie classroom we may add the following considera- 
tions: — 

First, interest is more readily aroused when the attention of the 
learner is concentrated on the thing to be accomplished than when it 
is occupied with the details that lead to the accomplishment. For 
example, it is more interesting in playing golf to pay attention to 
the point toward which you wish to drive the ball than it is to 
consider the proper method of holding and manipulating the 
driving iron. Likewise, the learner on the piano finds more 
pleasure in rendering his first piece of music than in the technical 
exercises that have preceded it. In a similar way the student of 
a language enjoys actual conversation and reading in the lan- 
guage more than he does the study of grammar and the learning 
of the vocabulary. In other words, we are more interested in 
tJie thing that we do, than the motions that we go through in the 
doing. 

,' In this connection, we are brought face to face with the problem of 
the logical versus the psychological method of teaching. In the 
logical method, the learner starts with what are considered the ele- 

► ments of a science, the fundamental facts of civics, the basal prin- 
ciples of English composition, the rudimentary forms of skill requi- 
site for subsequent proficiency in wood-work, shop-practice, or dress- 
making. In the pyschological method, the learner from the very 
start is concerned with those large facts, principles, and activities 
that to him are interesting in themselves. In biology, he does not 
begin with the single cell, but with some living form well known to 
him; in science, he does not first consider the elementary principles, 
but something with which he is acquainted in the world in which he 
fives, perhaps a sewing machine, an automobile, aeroplane, an indus- 
trial plant, or a street railway system; in civics, he is directly intro- 
duced to community activities, and learns through them the forces 
at work in the social and economic life of his day; in writing English, 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 77 

he does not begin by learning a large number of rules, and their ap- 
plications, but he writes from the start and learns the principles as he 
progresses; in the manual and domestic arts, he makes some useful 
object as soon as possible, and spends the minimum of time necessary 
on learning how to make these objects before actually undertaking 
them. In a preceding chapter, we have discussed this principle in 
connection with the direct method of teaching foreign languages which 
emphasizes conversation and translation from the start. In the teach- 
ing of all subjects, the pupil should be introduced as soon as possible 
to those forms of accomplishment and to those kinds of knowledge 
that are interesting to him, and the elements of these subjects should 
be taught in connection with the knowing and the doing rather than 
as prior to them and leading up to them. 

In the second place, interest centers more in the concrete than in 
the abstract. One of the greatest faults in our methods of in- 
struction, shared by teachers and text-books alike, is the fault of 
generalization without specific and definite examples illustrating 
the abstract principles set forth. The average teacher finds it 
extremely difficult to give to the class clear and simple illustra- 
tions of the facts discussed.^ If every teacher would definitely 
plan before entering the classroom the means by which he may 
best vivify and make concrete the subject-matter of the day's 
lesson the quality of instruction would be greatly improved. 

In the past few years the writer has had under his direction a con- 
siderable number of "cadet teachers," preparing under supervision 
for positions as high school teachers. In their lesson plans these 
students are required to state the illustrations that they purpose to 
use in their daily teaching. This for many is the most difficult part 
of the entire plan. They seem to be able to think in the abstract, but 
not in the concrete. Has the world of books divorced the student 
from life; has it put him out of touch with the vital realities about 
him; has it weakened his imagination, and befogged his thinking? 
Not only is the novice in teaching at fault in this particular aspect 

'^This important principle of teaching is discussed at length in Chap- 
ter XII. 



78 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

of the class work; the experienced teacher often fails here as well. 
How many times is some fact of great human importance and interest 
in history, science, literature, and art treated as a mere abstraction 
and left as a ghostly generality, devoid of life and meaning. 

In the jtMrd place, interest is dependent not merely on presenting 
facts but on the interpretation of them in terms of their meanings. — 
We must illustrate, we must niate concrete, but we must have 
something of general import to illustrate, we must make the 
concrete significant. The adolescent years are years of thought 
as well as of action, years in which the boy and the girl are 
striving not merely to come into contact with reality but to 
comprehend it. We all love to philosophize, to see in the par- 
ticular fact or incident something of general meaning, but never 
is this interest keener than in the middle and later years of 
youth. It grows with each succeeding year in the pupiFs course 
in the high school. No teacher of high school subjects can afford 
to deal with mere facts. He must find the universal in the 
particular.^ 

It has been the writer's experience that many teachers seem quite 
content to present facts, or to assign to pupils selections from text- 
books to be conned and repeated in a subsequent recitation. How 
many dreary exercises in history, how many profitless periods in 
EngHsh, in science, and even in mathematics are passed with nothing 
of meaning given to the subject-matter under consideration. The 
teacher seems quite satisfied if the pupils know the events in the Hfe 
of Napoleon, the story in the Vision of Sir Launfal, the routine of an 
experiment in chemistry, the demonstration of a proposition in geom- 
etry. What these details mean, what larger facts and principles they 
represent, are often totally ignored. Yet these are the significant, the 
important, the interesting aspects of the lesson or the course. 

In the igurth place, interest is stimulated to the extent that the 
learner is also a doer. It is a basal principle of educational 

1 See Chapter XIII., p. 288. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 79 

psychology that there is no learning without self-activity. The 
pupil must respond to what he reads or hears. He cannot be 
merely passive. He must use his mind and his hands if he is to 
acquire knowledge and skill. The most learned and capable 
teacher cannot give his knowledge and his skill to his pupils; all 
he can do is to stimulate them to learn and to direct them in 
their learning. Self-activity is not only the most interesting 
method of learning; it is the only successful method of learning. 

Many teachers seem surprised that pupils do not improve through 
repetition. They make no progress week in and week out. They 
show the same faults, the same lack of comprehension, the same im- 
perfections in skill, although they have been told and told again the 
true facts, the proper methods of work, the correct technique. The 
difficulty is that they have merely been told. They have really done 
nothing tliemselves. To read a page, even to commit it to memory, 
is not to master it. The meaning must be thought out and in some 
way applied. There are four stages in learning, — first, general read- 
ing of the materialior orientation ; second, passive study of the facts 
and ideas; third, active direction of the mind in the selection of and 
empliasis_on the significant facts, and fourth, reconstruction of the 
materials studied in terms of the learner's own thinking. Unfortu- 
nately many pupils never progress beyond the second stage, and 
many teachers have not suflacient understanding of the problem 
and skill in instructing their pupils to show them the proper methods 
of study. 

In the jfifth place, interest in the last analysis is a personal 
matter. The pupil is interested only in those things that concern 
him in some way, either from a purely selfish point of view, or 
from that of his wider sympathies and understandings. If he 
sees the bearings of a course of study on what he wishes to do 
either immediately or in the near future, it becomes of value for 
him. This interest need not be narrowly practical. It may be 
an interest in his own intellectual improvement. He may study 
an uninteresting subject because he needs to master it in order 



8o INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

to study something else that he desires to know, or because he 
believes that it will cultivate his mind. He will further be inter- 
ested in those matters that concern others in so far as he is able 
to put himself in the place of those concerned. He will never 
be interested in something that lacks for him narrowly personal, 
or more broadly human values. 

It is a perfectly proper question for the pupils to ask, "What good 
will this subject do me?" If the teacher believes that a subject is 
worth while, he should be able and willing to tell the pupil why it is 
worth while for him. Further than this the teacher should have in 
mind in teaching his subject the needs of the pupil, rather than the 
logic of the subject. No subject can be taught merely as a subject; 
it must be taught to someone, and in terms of the needs of the learner. 

As we have already said, teachers often make a mistake, particu- 
larly young teachers fresh from college, of thinking of the content of 
their subject as the great thing. In a conversation with a teacher of 
physics I once asked, "Why do you teach this course entirely from 
the standpoint of the college entrance requirements, when the major- 
ity of your pupils do not go to college, and when there are many 
things that they would be interested to know, and which would be 
helpful for them that you cannot touch upon when you follow out in 
detail the college requirements?" And this was the reply, — "I be- 
lieve that the only way to teach physics is from the standpoint of 
its scientific development, as worked out in the college entrance re- 
quirements. I cannot sacrifice the subject to suit the needs of these 
pupils. Let the few who can benefit by it as it should be taught get 
the benefit; I do not feel responsible for the others." Such a reply as 
this makes me feel that what we need in our schools is less worship of 
the subject and a broader humanism. 

(c) In the smoothly running class the teacher is the master, — 
In the preceding pages we have considered the well-disciplined 
class from the standpoint of the pupils' activities and interests. 
These center around the teacher as the controlling and dom- 
inating influence. The teacher controls not by physical force, 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 8 1 

but by what is vaguely called his personality. What this per- 
sonality consists in from the standpoint of the pupil we have 
pointed out. The pupil has a rather definite notion of the teacher 
that he likes; an equally clear notion of the teacher that he dis- 
likes. We have seen that the well-liked teacher must have 
"good-nature;" he must be cheerful, pleasant, enthusiastic, 
sympathetic, patient, and possessed of a sense of humor. But 
to be good-natured is not enough. These quahties alone do not 
constitute an ideal teacher from the point of view of the pupil. 
He must be absolutely fair, and administer strict justice. Fur- 
ther than this he must know his subject and have some skill in 
teaching it; and he must at all times be the master of the situa- 
tion. Every teacher should strive to be liked by his pupils, for 
if he is liked by them he will have little trouble in discipline. 
There will be no positive and intentional disorder. Inattention 
and minor disorders will be checked by a look or a word. If 
the pupils know what the teacher wishes they will try to do it. 
There are a few general principles that every teacher who wishes 
to be well liked by his pupils should keep in mind. Some of 
these are as follows: — 

Cultivate a genuine sympathy with your pupils, don't try to 
assume it. In this you cannot successfully make believe. If 
you have no real interest in your pupils, they will soon detect 
the fact. You cannot fool them, even if you fool yourself. To 
gain this sympathy you must strive to understand the nature of 
boys and girls, if you have forgotten yourself what that nature is. 
You must try to find out how their minds work; what they 
think and feel ; what their hopes and ambitions are. Talk with 
them individually when you have an opportunity. If they fail 
in their work, try to find out the reason, and seek to help them. 
By striving to understand them and to help them they will come 
to understand you, and in this way a mutual sympathy will be 
created, a sympathy that will be genuine and lasting. 

Do not let your sympathy run away with you. If a pupil has 



82 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

been delinquent in his work or in his conduct, hold him ac- 
countable. The kind teacher is looked up to; the " easy teacher " 
is generally despised. Do not let a pupil unjustly appeal to 
your good nature or fool you. The teacher who is hoaxed and 
cajoled is held in contempt. 

Do not attempt to gain favor by being undignified. You 
cannot be on the same level with your pupils, neither do they 
wish you to be. You may be their adviser and their model, you 
cannot be their chum. Resist the impulse to use slang, to talk 
as they talk, to act as they act. In their social functions you 
must be with them, but in a very true sense you cannot be ''of 
them;" on the athletic field you may be an interested spectator, 
but you cannot be a contestant or a leader in the cheering; in the 
classroom you should always be good-natured, but you cannot 
laugh whenever your pupils laugh, just to show your sense of 
humor, for much of their laughter is silly. 

Be patient but not procrastinating. You should not always 
restrain yourself. You must sympathize with stupidity and 
folly, but you must do what you can to remove them. 

Cultivate initiative on the part of the class, but do not sur- 
render your control. Let your pupils know what you think, and 
what you believe to be right. When there is doubt be frank to 
admit it, but be sure of those things that you ought to know. 
Be positive. 

Finally, have courage. Meet every situation resolutely, with 
a firm voice and a vigorous manner. Youth admires courage, 
respects action, reverences mastery. When you have once 
determined what to do never hesitate. Be master of yourself 
and you will be master of the class. 



CHAPTER V 

DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. — DIRECT CONTROL 

The Problem of Direct Disciplinary Control is Likely to 
Arise at Times even under the most Favorable Conditions .- 

Although the efficient teacher as a rule governs his class for the 
most part by indirect means, there are occasions when the ques- 
tion of direct disciplinary control may arise, even under the most 
favorable conditions. The fact has already been commented 
on that many pupils enter the high school and continue for some 
time, often to the end of their course, without an earnest and 
serious purpose. This makes it impossible for the teacher to 
exact from all the high quality of work that insures industry and 
studious attention. For this reason the American high school 
teacher must at times make special and determined effort to 
secure reasonable attention and proper behavior. On such 
occasions it happens that good order, which should be merely 
the incident of good teaching, is forced upon the teacher as the 
chief problem that he has to face in the conduct of his class. Not 
infrequently the novice in teaching, finds that the question of the 
control of his class is a matter of vital importance, and his 
success or failure may largely depend on how well he can keep 
his pupils in hand. 

T5rpes of Disciplinary Problems. — (a) The iTicipiently dis- 
orderly class. — The form of disorder most often met with is that 
of the generally restless and inattentive class. Here there is no 
positive attempt at disorder. The attitude of the pupils is 
negative, there is considerable restlessness and some whispering. 
Under such circumstances the quality of work done is invariably 
inferior. There is also always the danger that such a class will 



84 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

soon reach the point where it will be entirely beyond the control 
of the teacher. 

A concrete example of a class of this sort will make more evident 
the serious character of the situation. The instance is taken from a 
class in Enghsh history in a city high school of a thousand pupils. 
The observer reports, — "In this class the discipline was poor. In the 
first place it seemed to me that the seating of the pupils had a good 
deal to do with the disorder. They were spread out over a large 
room making concentration of attention extremely difficult, if not 
impossible. Where two boys were seated near each other they 
laughed, paying no heed to what was going on in the way of the les- 
son, at least. When the pupils were separated, they busied them- 
selves for the most part with something outside of the class work, 
often reading books and newspapers, and sometimes idly marking on 
sheets of paper, or looking out of the window, apparently into vacant 
space. There were four girls in the class. These laughed and talked 
occasionally across the aisle while someone else was reciting. Usually 
the teacher devoted too long a time to the pupil whom she was ques- 
tioning. The rest of the class derived no benefit from this, as far as 
I was able to perceive, spending the time in moving about in their 
seats, smiling, raising desk covers, etc. The single effort to check 
this sort of a thing occurred when the teacher waited until one boy 
stopped whispering to his neighbor. The only purpose this served 
was to arouse the laughter of the rest of the class. In less than a 
minute he had resumed his general inattentive and indifferent at- 
titude." 

(b) The actively disorderly class. — ^A class that begins with 
incipient disorder as a rule soon becomes consciously and ac- 
tively disorderly. Laughing and talking are likely to continue 
for most of the hour; there are passing of notes, kicking and 
punching of one's neighbors and other varieties of "horse play." 

An observer of a class in French writes, — "There were twenty in 
the class, eleven boys and nine girls, — and the boys spent practically 
the whole recitation period in what seemed to be a more or less de- 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 85 

liberate attempt to make trouble for their mates and for the teacher. 
There were loud whispering, shuffling of chairs, and 'fooHng,' none of 

which Miss seemed to have the courage even to try to stop, 

although I believe she must have seen most of what was going on; 
she must have, it was so obvious. Her attitude seemed to invite dis- 
order. She sat at her desk for the most of the hour; her voice was 
poor, and she spoke fast and rather indistinctly. Her manner was 
listless and spiritless. She asked her questions solely to the pupil 
reciting, ignoring the rest of the class completely, even to the extent 
of apparently not noticing the pranks of two boys on the opposite 
side of the room. She seemed to be entirely out of touch with her 
pupils; resorted continually to mild sarcasm, and seemed to have no 
conception of her office beyond that of merely 'hearing' individual 
pupils recite. There was practically nothing taught during the entire 
period. The class seemed outside of the pale of her interest and 
control." 

(c) The aggressively disorderly class. — Under extreme condi- 
tions the class is not only in active disorder, but it is aggressively 
organized to antagonize and "break up" the teacher. There are 
all sorts of disturbance, shuffling and stamping of feet, cat-calls, 
groans, throwing of chalk and erasers, scuffling, banging of desk 
covers, and the like. Here is displayed not merely a spirit of 
restlessness, and carelessness, but an attitude of positive an- 
tagonism toward the teacher. Such a class has passed com- 
pletely beyond the control of the teacher, who is helpless under 
the circumstances and who cannot hope to do anything of value 
until order has been reestablished. 

An observer of wide experience describes such a class in a medium- 
sized high school in which in general the discipHne was good. The 
trouble was confined to a large class taught by an inexperienced 
teacher. The observer says, — "It was a first year class in English, 
numbering forty-two pupils. The instructor was a young man who 
had specialized as a graduate student in the subject he was teaching, 
and had taken advanced courses in the department of education at 



86 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

one of our leading universities, but had had no practical courses in 
the art of teaching, and had had no previous experience. He lacked 
tact, vigor and courage. He apparently had no comprehension of 
the pupils' point of view, or any conception of how to make the sub- 
ject interesting or vital. There was no attempt to stimulate thought, 
or to bring out anything in the lesson except a few of the dryest facts 
supposed to have been conned by rote for the day's assignment. 

"The result of such a combination was easy to foresee. Given a 
lesson that had in itself a little interest, an instructor who had no 
conception of how to awaken any interest that might possibly be 
found, who had a decidedly weak personality, no apparent concep- 
tion of instructional skiU, and finally an excessively large class of 
young people, who were seeking some outlet for their unutilized 
energies, and there could be but one ultimate outcome. The pupils 
could not be said to whisper; they talked aloud, and they talked most 
of the time. There were added to this the shuffling of feet, the bang- 
ing of books on the desks, frequent cat-calls, and occasional groans, 
varied by the throwing of paper wads and chalk, and at least in one 
instance, an eraser. Pupils who were called upon to recite did so with 
evident reluctance. They repHed to most of the questions with a 
'don't know,' and in two instances pupils when called upon refused 
to rise from their seats, simply saying that they were not prepared. 
No urging on the part of the teacher could induce them to stand or 
answer questions put to them. One boy was absolutely insolent. 
When told by the teacher that he should remember a rule of grammar 
that he constantly violated he repHed with a sneer, that he couldn't 
keep such stuff in his mind; he had other things to think of. 

''Thus the period of forty-five minutes dragged its slow length along 
and finally came to an end. It had been absolutely wasted; worse 
than wasted, for not only had nothing of positive value been taught, 
but much of negative worth had been learned. What a training in 
disorder, and disrespect for authority that one period furnished; 
what a menace to the orderly control of the entire school; what danger 
for the future of those young people who were soon to arrive at the 
years of full responsibility and assume the duties of American citizen- 
ship. It is to be hoped that in this instance there was slight transfer 
of practice effects, and that the training in disorder was chiefly con- 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 87 

fined to this one class and that it will not spread to disorder in the 
school, in the home, and in the future lives of the pupils." 

(d) The disorderly pupil. — Problems of discipline are very 
largely class problems, problems that concern groups of in- 
dividuals rather than single pupils. When a class as a whole is 
well disposed and has the fashion of docility establi hed, in- 
dividual pupils are not likely to give much annoyance. How- 
ever, at times it happens that there are pupils who seem to be 
little influenced by the group attitude and who constitute in- 
dividual problems, to be dealt with as isolated and special cases. 
The least serious of these specific cases is the disorderly pupil. 
Such cases range in degree from the pupil with wandering atten- 
tion, through the restless, the careless, the over-zealous pupil 
to the giggling girl, the egoistic pupil (the ''smart Alec," who 
likes to show off) and the mischievous pupil. Each one of these 
types constitutes a distinct problem. Perhaps the most common 
is the over-zealous pupil who is always eager to take part in the 
recitation; who is constantly raising his hand, speaking out when 
a question is asked or another pupil is reciting, and often making 
comments to his neighbors concerning the matter under con- 
sideration. Such a pupil has an excellent attitude as a rule. He 
is thoroughly interested in his work, and his attention is on the 
topic before the class. However, his interruptions are a dis- 
turbance to the orderly progress of the recitation, and sooner or 
later are likely to cause disciplinary troubles from other mem- 
bers of the class. 

"The chief trouble that I have experienced in my discipline this 
year," writes a beginning teacher, "is from pupils who are always 
breaking in when I am asking questions, or when others are reciting. 
These pupils are interested in the work, and they are among the 
brightest in the class, but I must constantly keep them in check, if 
I am to get on with the lesson. I thought at first that it would be 
wrong to check their enthusiasm, but I soon found that the work was 



88 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

not progressing as it should, and that I could not cover my lesson 
as planned. Further than this, the interruptions were often resented 
by the pupils who were reciting, and also certain members of the class 
who were not so eager about the work as were the pupils who originally 
started the fashion of making comments when not called upon, took 
advantage of the situation to speak out, as far as I could judge merely 
for the 'fun of it.' I soon found that my control of the class was 
being lost, and I had no alternative but to require in general that 
pupils should not speak unless they had received permission from 
me to do so. I have not quite eliminated the tendency, but it is 
under reasonable control at present, and the discipline has greatly 
improved in consequence." 

*\ The egoisti£.,^pil generally gives trouble in two ways. At 
times, like the over-zealous pupil, he breaks into the orderly 
conduct of the recitation. In his case, however, it is done with 
a conscious attempt to show what he knows, or to correct some 
mistake of a fellow pupil, or if possible, of the teacher. He is 
not so much interested in the work as he is in himself. The 
egoistic pupil becomes a more serious source of trouble when he 
tries to "show off " in the class, and to thus get the approval of 
his mates. One favorite method is to make ludicrous state- 
ments, and to assume comical attitudes. Such a pupil is never 
really happy imless he gets a laugh from the class. 

"I never realized what a problem in discipline really was," writes a 
teacher of experience, "until Jim came. He was a lanky, over-grown, 
red-headed boy of fifteen, a natural comedian, and greatly admired 
by his mates. He loved to show off, but he didn't really need to make 
a serious effort. The tones of his voice, the attitudes that he struck, 
the grimaces that he made, were all good comedy. Jim's natural 
talents in this direction were so great that he has since gone on the 
stage, and has made a success. Perhaps the worst thing about the 
whole situation was that Jim was always good-natured, and I did 
not have it in my heart to be severe with him, especially when he did 
something that made me want to laugh, just as heartily as the class 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 89 

did, and this happened not infrequently. Nevertheless, I found that 
I had to call a halt on Jim's pranks; if I had not I should soon have had 
the worst disciplined class in the school. I never had another case 
just like Jim's. I have had boys who wanted to show off and tried 
to be funny, but these were as a rule inartistic in their attempts to 
raise a laugh. I had little difficulty in putting them in their proper 
place." 

The mischievous pupil tries to make trouble on the sly. He 
delights in doing things when the teacher is not looking, and 
often develops an exasperating degree of cunning. When 
detected, or called to account, he generally assumes an air of 
injured innocence. 

The writer recently observed a typical case of this sort in a class 
in geometry which he was visiting. The boy in question sat in the 
rear of the room. He was a meek, pale, and inoffensive looking youth, 
and when the eye of the teacher was on him he was a model of good 
behavior and attention, but when the teacher turned away her gaze, 
then he was instantly on the alert to make some kind of disturbance. 
A favorite device was to begin a low humming, which he ingeniously 
controlled in such a way that the teacher did not seem to be able to 
detect its source. At times he would drum on the underside of his 
desk, occasionally he would flick bits of paper at other pupils, with 
an astonishing accuracy of aim, and on one occasion he used a small 
pocket lens to focus a ray of sunHght on the back of the neck of the 
girl in front of him. The teacher for the most part seemed to be en- 
tirely ignorant that a disturbance was going on, but the class were 
well aware of what the boy was doing, and they gave much more 
attention to him than to the lesson. 

y The gi gg lin g g irl is a common source of disturbance in classes 
composed of pupils of the high school age. There is generally no 
positive attempt on the part of such pupils to create disorder. 
They are at the "silly age," and giggling is a spontaneous ex- 
pression that is extremely difficult to control. Generally it does 
not develop into a serious disciplinary problem when there are 



90 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

but one or two pupils in the class who are of this type. However, 
four or five tittering girls together may seriously menace the 
Orderly conduct of any class. 
J The careless pupi l is at times the source of much annoyance 
to the teacher. He walks heavily down the aisle, jostling against 
pupils, brushing books from desks, and making a great clatter. 
He slams down his desk cover, drops his books, is awkward and 
naively comical. Usually he is boorish, and lacking in good 
manners. 

"I believe I spent more time in attempting to teach Walter how 
to walk quietly about the room," a teacher recently said to me, "than 
I did in teaching the class German. Whenever he went to the board 
he moved as ponderously as an elephant, with much more noise, 
and with much less grace. Before the term was over, I had learned 
never to ask him to leave his seat except under extreme necessity. 
But he could not be quiet, even when seated. He piled his books on 
the top of his desk in a most disorderly fashion, and generally knocked 
all of them on the floor a half-dozen times, during the recitation. At 
length I made it a rule that he must never have more than one book 
on his desk at a time. There were other ways, however, in which 
he could make a disturbance when seated, such as leaning so heavily 
against the back of his chair that he broke it, letting his desk cover 
fall on all possible occasions, taking out the ink well and upsetting the 
ink, and to cap the climax loUing about in his seat until he actually 
fell out. Fortunately, this made him just a Httle ashamed, and from 
that time on he began to show some improvement, but he is still my 
big single problem in discipline. I do not think that he intends to 
be in disorder. He is naturally clumsy." 

(e) The pupil in rebellion- The pupil who has tendencies 
toward disorder is to be found in most schools and in the ma- 
jority of classes, though in the well-disciplined school he has no 
opportunity to give vent to these tendencies and he remains 
docile and reasonably attentive on most occasions. The pupil 
in open or in hidden rebeUion against school authority and class 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 9I 

discipline is an exception. He often goes to school under com- 
pulsion; he has no interest in his work; he not infrequently has a 
grudge against the principal or some teacher. His attitude is 
hostile, and is often due to improper home training, bad com- 
panions, or harsh and unsympathetic teachers. He is at times 
sulky and obstinate, less often openly unruly and wilfully dis- 
obedient, occasionally impudent, insulting and defiant. One 
of the least disturbing forms of incipient or open rebellion against 
school authority as far as the teacher is concerned, but one which 
demands vigorous treatment on the part of the principal is 
truancy. A boy who detests his school work, or who finds the 
outside world particularly attractive, is likely to turn his back 
on school tasks and seek every opportunity to escape them. 

Quite often truancy is a phase of the "gang" spirit. Boys go off 
in groups on "expeditions." Some principals find that this is closely 
connected with cigarette smoking and even more pronounced and 
dangerous forms of viciousness. At times we find the isolated truant, 
the one who habitually absents himself from school, but goes alone, 
as in the following example: — "My dear Mr. , At your re- 
quest I am writing this letter telling of my truancy. Monday, Oc- 
tober 25th, I started out to school on my wheel. When I was a Uttle 
further than the race tracks on Broad Street the front tire blew out. 
I walked home with the wheel and it being late and I having no excuse 
decided to stay out just for the day. I went down city to the Nickel 
and the Bijou. There was no one with me all day. I then came 
home. Tuesday, October 26th, I went to the Empire. I stayed down 
city the rest of the day. There was no one with me all day. I was 
afraid to tell my father that I stayed out and I didn't want to write 
my own excuse. Wednesday, October 27th, I went down town and 
stayed there until two o'clock. Then I came home and went to the 
Palace Theatre which is right at the head of our street. No one was 
with me. Thursday and Friday was teachers' institute. Monday, 
November ist, I had a bad cold and was told to stay home in the 
house which I did. Tuesday, I went to the city and then to the 
Empire. I stayed down town until about three o'clock and then 



92 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

came home. There was no one with me. Wednesday, November 3rd, 
I went to the Bijou and the Nickel. There was no one with me. I 
then came home. Thursday, November 4th, I went to the Nickel. 
I loafed around and then came home. There was no one with me. 
Friday, November 5th, I went to the city and loafed around till two 
o'clock then I came home, and went to the Palace. There was no 
one with me. Respectfully yours, " 

The defiant and insulting pupil is a source of great danger and is a 
constant menace to the discipline of the teacher. Fortunately such 
a pupil is rare. One instance of this type is that of a spoiled boy who 
has a very high opinion of himself, and who holds the school and its 
teachers in almost open contempt. In the classroom he laughs, talks, 
and does as he pleases. He commits all sorts of petty infractions of 
discipHne, and when reprimanded he assumes a bold attitude. He 
is the leader of a gang, and takes great pleasure in showing that he 
is superior to the ordinary rules of classroom conduct. In the cor- 
ridors he makes unnecessary noise, and openly tries to annoy the 
teachers in charge. On one occasion, when threatened with expul- 
sion by a teacher, he said, — "No one dares to put me out of this 
school; my father has influence on the school committee, and I will 
see that you lose your job if you attempt to have me removed." 
Constant reprimands and punishments have had very little effect in 
controlling this pupil. On one occasion he was suspended for several 
months, but he came back again, with the same rebellious and defiant 
attitude. The essence of the trouble in his case hes to a considerable 
extent in the fact that he was never taught in the home to assume an 
attitude of subordination and proper respect for authority. 

Another pupil in the same school who was openly defiant and re- 
bellious finally stated that the reason for his attitude was that he was 
compelled by his father to go to school. What he wished to do was 
to work, and he thought that he might finally be expelled if he con- 
tinued in disobedience. Another pupil, a girl, was hostUe, not to the 
school as a whole, but to one teacher, for the reason that she felt that 
this teacher had dealt with her in an unfair way. As she expressed 
her feehngs to the principal, she "had it in" for that particular 
teacher, and intended to cause all the trouble that she dared to in 
his classes. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 93 

The writer has investigated a considerable number of cases 
of pupils who are clearly at odds with the school and has found 
all to fall under one of the three above types. The fault is due either 
to an extremely egoistic nature, developed and accentuated by a 
faulty home training, to total lack of interest in the school work and 
a positive desire to leave school, or to unwise treatment on the part 
of some teacher or principal, treatment that seems to the pupil arbi- 
trary, harsh, and unjust. 

(f) The vicious pupil. — In this class are found pupils with 
various kinds of bad habits (of whom the habitual cigarette 
smokers are the most numerous), thieves, petty gamblers, liars, 
deliberate and wilful cheats, and obscene and sexually immoral 
pupils. The most drastic punishment is visited on pupils of this 
last-named type, because of the great social danger of their 
presence. The cheat is, as a rule, not dealt with in a sufficiently 
severe manner. In fact cheating is in some instances looked 
upon as so trivial a fault that many pupils do not recognize that 
certain minor forms of dishonesty are wrong. For this reason, 
it is perhaps unfair to class the dishonest pupil as vicious, al- 
though his conduct as such may warrant this characterization. 

The most common form of dishonesty is that of handing in work 
as original on which the pupil has received assistance. This ranges 
from getting help from parents and school-mates to the actual copying 
of themes and similar written work. Cheating in examination is also 
common. Most pupils feel that they have a right to cheat, if they are 
in danger of not passing the test, and few pupils consider that they 
are doing wrong when they help another to get through. Indeed, it 
is a point of honor with pupils to give aid to others when they are 
asked, even if they would not receive aid themselves. The extent to 
which these forms of cheating occur is so great that it calls for vigorous 
measures to suppress the practice. The schools as a rule have not 
taken any positive stand in the matter, and punishments are either 
not administered at all, or are of such a mild character as to have 
little effect. Occasionally the habitual and confirmed cheat is dealt 



94 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

with in a more rigorous manner, as shown by the following disci- 
plinary report, which is typical, — "This girl cheated or attempted it 
twice in arithmetic and had to repeat the course. She cheated in 
shorthand and was given zero for that test. Her mother was called. 
She has cheated again in arithmetic. She seems incorrigible in this 
reject." This girl was finally sent to the ofl&ce of the superin- 
tendent. 

Types of Disciplinary Control. — ^The question of indirect 
disciplinary control has already been discussed at length in the 
preceding chapter. As has been seen, it consists in so conducting 
the school and the class that disorder and disobedience do not 
have a chance to develop. Obviously some of the methods sug- 
gested as means of indirect control can be used with effect when 
/ actual disciplinary problems arise. These methods, however, 
/ will not be discussed again at this time. ;■ Among the types of 
direct control the following are the most important: — 

(a) Control through discussion. — It is generally agreed by 
teachers and disciplinary officers that in dealing with individual 
offenders the first thing to be done is to talk matters over with 
the pupil. This serves several purposes. In the first place the 
pupil's point of view is obtained, misunderstandings are some- 
times cleared up, and the real nature of the offence is better 
understood by both the pupil and the officer. Further than this 
the frank statement of a fault is often in itself a wholesome cor- 
rective. We have here an illustration of the "psychology of i 
confession." 

Again discussions between teachers and pupils at times bring 
about mutual understandings and establish personal friendships. 
The pupil hesitates to antagonize the teacher when he is made to 
feel that his instructor is not a mere task-master but a real hu- 
man being. 

An example of this method of treatment that brought satisfactory 
results is the case of a girl in the freshman class of a city high school 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 95 

who was stubborn and negative in her entire attitude toward her 
work. When called upon she was surly, and even when she seemed 
to know the topic for recitation she would reply to questions only in 
the briefest way. Often she refused to recite at all. The teacher of 
general science overheard the girl saying that the subject meant 
nothing to her and that she did not intend to prepare her lessons. 
The teacher tallied with the girl in private, tried to explain to her 
what the subject signified, found that the girl had interests that 
linked themselves up with certain aspects of the subject, and in the 
end helped to make clear to the girl many of the difficulties that she 
had found in the study. There was a decided improvement in this 
pupil's work from this time on, not only in the subject of general 
science, but in her other studies also. Later in her course, the girl 
did well. She said that the reason for her change of attitude was due 
to the fact that she found someone vv^ho seemed to take a genuine 
interest in her and who really wanted to help her. 

Another example of the value of establishing personal relations and 
finding common interests is of a boy who had been disorderly in the 
class on various occasions. The teacher tried the usual method of 
keeping the offender after school, but without any permanent result. 
On one occasion, however, he took the opportunity to talk with the 
boy about his life outside of school, and discovered that the boy was 
greatly interested in boating and fishing, sports in which the teacher 
himself happened to be an expert. The older man told the youth 
some of his experiences, and in ten minutes a basis of good feeling 
and mutual understanding had been established that solved the 
entire disciplinary problem as far as this teacher and this pupil were 
concerned. 

Teachers should not make the mistake of talking too much 
with pupils about their conduct. Above all, in these discussions 
there should not be prolonged argument or debate. Neither does 
it follow that nothing more should be done than to talk matters 
over. At times most vigorous measures must follow, although at 
other times all that is necessary is a frank understanding. The 
pupil often sees where he is at fault, and makes an honest at- 
tempt to correct his misconduct. When he takes this attitude 



96 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

there is no immediate call for further measures. However, a 
repetition of the original offence cannot be permitted to pass 
without more positive action. 

In some schools it is the practice of those in charge of the discipline 
to require that a pupil who has been sent to the disciplinary officer 
should make a careful statement in writing of the nature of his mis- 
conduct. This statement is to be submitted to the teacher who has 
reported the pupil, and it is then to be returned with the teacher's 
comments on the case. In this manner the issue involved is brought 
definitely to the attention of the pupil. Further, the statement can 
be put on file and used as a basis for later reference, if the offence is 
again committed, or any question concerning it arises. As a rule 
pupils do not care to have a record of their misconduct preserved in 
permanent form, and are not likely to consider it a trivial matter to 
be sent to the disciplinary officer under such circumstances. 

While it is a rule than can safely be adhered to in general that 
disciplinary troubles with individual pupils should be dealt with, 
in part at least, through discussion, it is a question how far the 
teacher should discuss the problem of order before the class as 
a whole. It is certain that no teacher should ''lecture" or scold 
his class. The teacher who always talks about discipline, and] 
seldom acts is sure to fail. Most pupils respect the teacher whose/- 
words are relatively few, and whose deeds are certain. The 
teacher who constantly finds fault and nags his pupils likewise is 
sure tp have poor discipline. In a short time a spirit of antag- 
onism will be directed against him, and when this attitude exists 
his usefulness with his pupils is at an end. No teacher should j 
make it a practice of telling the class what he intends to do, if 
the pupils misbehave. It is not wise to suggest the possibility of 
disorder in advance. Further, if a teacher is unwise enough to 
threaten his pupils, there are sure to be a few bold spirits who 
will "take the dare." There are occasions, however, when a 
straightforward discussion with the class about certain matters 
of general conduct is wholesome and desirable. In such dis- 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 97 

cussions the teacher must appeal to the reason and the better 
sentiment of the class in such a way as to obtain its approval and 
sympathy. 

One of the most effective instances of such an appeal that has come 
to the writer's attention was that made by a novice in an ungraded 
school in New Hampshire. The school was a building of one room 
with twenty pupils. On the first day all went well, but on the second 
there were signs that the pupils were beginning to try the teacher out. 
On the third day the evidences of disorder were on all sides. There 
were whispering, throwing of paper wads, passing of notes, and gen- 
eral inattention. The teacher saw that the school was rapidly getting 
beyond her control and resolved on positive action. At the close of 
the recess period, the pupils were told with great solemnity on taking 
their seats to put aside all their work. The teacher then said that 
she had something of great importance to say to them. She told them 
in detail what they had been doing, naming individual offenders and 
their specific acts, and added, — "Now I can be a pleasant teacher or 
a cross teacher. We can have a happy time this term, or we can have 
a miserable time; we can learn a great deal, or we can learn little. 
Which shall it be?" The teacher remained with the school for the 
entire year, but she never again was called upon to refer to the sub- 
ject of disorder. From that time on she was in complete control of 
the situation. 

Another instance of appeal to the class was even more radical, and 
came just in time to save a desperate situation. The class was large, 
thirty-five boys in the second year class of a technical high school. 
The teacher was a young man fresh from college, and his pupils con- 
sidered him fair game. Before the end of the first week it had become 
a typically disorderly class of the aggressive type. The teacher was 
at his wit's end and when the disorder was at its worst he banged his 
book down on his desk, for in no other way could he secure attention, 
and said, — "Don't you think it is pretty mean of you fellows to treat 
me in this way? You know that I am a new teacher. I think you 
ought to be fair and give me a chance. Remember you are thirty- 
five to one." The appeal proved effective. There was no more 
serious disorder in that class. 



98 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(b) Control through counter-attraction: — This is a principle 
of great importance, not only in dealing with control of pupils in 
the school, but with various problems of social betterment and 
reform. An undesirable activity is prevented or removed by 
placing it in competition with an activity that is entirely 
harmless and at the same time extremely attractive. It is true 
that children and adults alike desire to do the thing that meets 
social approval, if it makes an appeal to their interests, habits, or 
instinctive tendencies. In the previous chapter many of the 
methods of indirect control that were discussed are based on this 
principle of the motivation of human conduct. Thus truancy 
may be checked by making school work attractive, or through 
an appeal to the vocational interest. 

A striking instance of the complete reform of a disorderly class by 
an appeal to tlie fundamental interest that made the disorder stale 
and profitless is furnished me by a teacher of experience and thorough 
efficiency. He writes, — "During my second year of teaching, I was 
confronted with a very difficult problem in discipline that for the time 
threatened my undoing. I had lived through my first year as a high 
school teacher, and had in a mild way succeeded. I had experienced 
the usual troubles of a beginner, and among them I had had my share 
of questions of conduct and order, though none of them were serious. 
I fondly imagined at the beginning of my second year that all my 
troubles lay behind me, but, alas! this was far from the case. My real 
difficulties began when I was assigned a class in American history, 
composed principally of boys, most of them of a low grade of ability 
and nearly half of them repeaters. I used the ordinary recitation and 
text-book method, the old dry-as-dust procedure that still charac- 
terizes so much of our teaching. With a class of ability and intellec- 
tual interests I probably should have made a seeming success, though 
I am inclined to think that it would have been more apparent than 
real, but with this class there was not the slightest doubt that I was 
an utter, complete, and miserable failure. I taught the pupils prac- 
tically nothing, they refused to be taught, and on the whole I think 
they were right in refusing the husks of mental pabulum that I of- 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 99 

fered them. Even then I should have had no serious trouble (serious 
from the standpoint of the principal and most supervising authorities) 
had not my discipHne gone to pieces. The class, having no interest in 
the work, sought to find some extrinsic form of entertainment, and 
they found it in creating disorder of a very serious nature. I might 
have ignored their indifference and their stupidity, but I could not 
ignore their behavior, and if I had, surely the school authorities would 
not have overlooked the matter. I realized before a week had passed 
that I had to do something, and do it soon. I tried some of the usual 
methods of punishment, but they were dismal failures. I was in a 
panic, and the class knew it. 

"Then a thought came to me which finally saved the situation. 
It was radical, particularly in those days. It consisted simply in 
changing my entire method of teaching. I gave up hearing lessons, 
and set the class to work on matters of local history that I connected 
more or less definitely with the text. We were in the Colonial Period 
and the town in which I was teaching was an old New England city 
full of traditions, and possessing much of early historical significance. 
This was extremely fortunate for me, for it gave me a basis to work 
from. I began by organizing the class into groups as committees to 
investigate certain topics and make reports to their mates. I will not 
go into detail, but I soon got their interest and cooperation. In a short 
tim.e I had most of the boys and all of the girls working like Trojans. 
They were eager to find out things for themselves, they took pride 
in telling to the class what they had found and they became really 
enthusiastic in the discussions that developed. I soon had a class 
in which the problem of discipline no longer existed. I also had a 
class of enthusiastic, efficient workers. Not one of the class, no, not 
a single repeater failed to pass the course. There was not one who did 
really poor work. I have taught many classes in history smce, but 
never one that I enjoyed more than this class." 

(c) Control through regulation of the enviromnent. — This is the 
principle of so controlling the external conditions that an un- 
desirable tendency does not have the opportunity to express 
itself. The environment is sterilized, so to speak, and the germs 
of disobedience have no chance to develop. Proceeding on this 



lOO INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

theory, parents and social reformers seek to guard the young 
person from evil influence by removing temptations from his 
path, or by so supervising him that he does not have the oppor- 
tunity to indulge in wrong doing. Under such conditions, bad 
habits have no chance to become established. However, there 
is no certainty that when conditions are changed and there 
are incentives and opportunities for wrong behavior, the in- 
dividual will resist them. It is here that this method of control is 
most likely to fail. It develops no independence on the part 
of the young person, and is not conducive to "character build- 
ing." In many instances, however, it is the most ejEfective 
method of dealing with misconduct, and the wise teacher will 
employ it, but always with discretion. 

Reference has already been made to the vice of dishonesty in school 
work and the desirability of holding it in check. It is difficult to 
create ideals of honesty; it is not safe to give pupils opportunities to 
cheat. Under such conditions this habit quickly becomes estab- 
lished. Pupils who if left to their own devices would never hand in 
work on which they had received improper assistance, soon find that 
their associates are cheating and reason that the teacher has no right 
to permit this sort of thing, if only a few have the advantage. In a 
short time all have caught the infection, and cheating becomes a class 
and a school habit. It is the duty of the teacher carefully to super- 
vise tests and examinations; to make it difficult for the pupils to re- 
ceive and give aid. The teacher should refuse to accept written work 
and exercises done outside of the class when there is clear evidence, 
as there often is, that this work is not original. When it is impossible 
for the work to be scrutinized and supervised it should not count for 
credit. The pupils should be made to understand that there is no 
advantage in dishonesty. For this reason tests should frequently be 
given to determine real ability and progress. If the exercises done 
outside of the class in language and in mathematics were considered 
merely as aids to the pupil in his learning and not as exercises to be 
marked; if class-standing and ability were measured entirely by 
work and tests done under the supervision of the teacher, there 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL lOI 

would be no object on the part of the pupil in receiving improper 
assistance.^ 

The discipline of the classroom is largely dependent on the alert- 
ness of the teacher, who so controls the room that there are few oppor- 
tunities for individuals to misbehave. It is generally true that the 
teacher who does not know what is going on has a disorderly room. 
On the other hand the teacher who sees what is taking place has 
created an environment where the opportunities for misconduct are 
few. Pupils as a rule will not misbehave when they know that the 
teacher is observing them. 

(d) Control through catharsis. — This is the principle of allowing 
all tendencies of individuals to have expression. It is the theory 
of sowing wild oats. Some believe that the best way to get rid of 
an undesirable impulse is to give it full swing. In this way, it is 
urged, the individual will be purged of his wrong desires. If a 
boy longs to play truant, let him run away from school or home, 
and he will soon be glad to come back; if he is curious about 
cigarette smoking give him a chance to experiment with it, and 
perhaps he will find it less attractive than he had thought. 
It is argued that the best way to make an act desirable is to 
prohibit it. 

It can be seen that this principle of control is exactly the 
opposite of the one previously discus ed. The former says, — 
*'Make the environment of su h a nature that opportunities to 
do wrong are reduced to a minimum," while the latter urges, — 
*' Arrange conditions so that the individual's tendencies shall 
not be checked unduly." Most will agree that while the prin- 
ciple of inhibition at times fails, that of catharsis seldom proves 
effective. Generally the surest way to make a boy a truant is to 
allow him to play truant. Cigarette smoking commonly ends 
in the establishment of a habit; not in the checking of an impulse. 
However, there is doubtless a certain modicum of truth in con- 

* For a further discussion of this topic see Chapter VIII., p. i66 and Chap- 
ter XVII., p. 363. 



I02 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

tention, and the writer Has known a few instances in which in a 
minor way this method of control has been used to some ad- 
vantage. 

A teacher reports that on several occasions when her class in Eng- 
lish has been unusually silly she has found it possible to bring them 
back to a serious frame of mind by giving them an exercise in writing 
limericks and nonsense jingles. Another teacher has furnished me 
with the following instance: — He says, — "A boy gave me no end of 
trouble by trying to make a clown of himself in the class. Ordinary 
methods of discipline worked only temporary reforms. Finally, I 
asked him to stay after school one day and required him to rehearse 
his 'stunts' before me. I kept him at them until he got enough. He 
has shown little disposition to do them for the benefit of the class 
since." 

It should be noted, however, that this second instance of discipline 
by the exercise of an undesirable activity is not a pure illustration of 
inhibition through catharsis. Doubtless the boy would have con- 
tinued to show off before the class indefinitely if free rein had been 
given to him to exercise his inclinations there. When, however, he 
was required to perform before the teacher, this so changed conditions 
that his conduct seemed to him to be no longer desirable. It was not 
free expression of his tendencies that corrected them, but expression 
under new and undesirable conditions. The same is true of an in- 
stance cited by Bagley in his book on Class Discipline.^ He writes, — 
"A schoolroom was so constructed that the ceiling was supported by 
iron pillars surmounted by Corinthian capitals. Once when the 
teacher was absent from the room for a few moments, a boy yielded 
to the impulse which had often possessed him, namely, — to 'shin 
up' one of the pillars. When the teacher returned, she found the boy 
perched at the summit with an arm and one leg over the comer of 
the capital. She remarked pleasantly upon his exploit and told him 
to stay there. It was fun for a few moments, but the unnatural posture 
quickly became uncomfortable, and it was not very long before the 
adventurous lad was longing for permission to come down. He saw, 

1 See p. 202, 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 103 

however, that the joke was turned, and said nothing. Finally, when 
the teacher saw that the discomfort had approached agony, she re- 
lented and told the boy to take his seat. The climbing of pillars, it 
is hardly necessary to say, was not repeated." 

(e) Control through modification of behavior. It is frequently 
possible to inhibit undesirable forms of conduct by turning the 
activities of the pupil into new and desirable channels. This is 
an important principle of social control, as well as of class man- 
agement. The boy who desires to play truant may find his 
tendencies satisfied by field excursions, or other forms of school 
activities carried on out of doors. The girl who longs for ro- 
mance may find a safe vent for her desires in writing romantic 
stories, or in reading the works of George Eliot. In this con- 
nection we find that it is the function of creative and appreciat- 
ive art to provide through the imagination safe and desirable 
forms of behavior as substitutes for unsafe and unworthy kinds 
of conduct. There are numerous examples of the working out 
of this principle of disciplinary control in the school. A few 
will be sufficient to make definite its nature. 

A class in history contained several pupils who were so eager to 
take part in the general discussions that the orderly progress of the 
class period was seriously hindered. The teacher did not wish to dis- 
courage interest, but he reahzed that something must be done to 
prevent the confusion that was resulting. He hit upon the plan of 1 
requiring the pupils to submit in writing questions and comments on \ 
the progress of the lesson. These were left in a question box at the 
end of the class period, and at the next recitation the most important 
were taken up and considered. This method was effectual in every 
way. When required to write out questions, the pupils framed them 
in a more thoughtful and careful manner, and the benefit derived from 
the discussion of the significant ones was one of the most important 
parts of the work. Further than this there grew up among the various 
members of the class a wholesome rivalry in the attempt of the 
pupils to write out questions that would be worth consideration. 



I04 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

Finally, while only a few individuals took part in the oral questions 
and comments, all shared in the written exercises. 

The principal of a high school found a serious disciplinary problem 
on his hands because a few of the older boys with tendencies toward 
leadership had organized the younger members into a number of 
gangs that by their conduct threatened the good name of the school 
and the community. He solved the problem completely by interest- 
ing these same boys in legitimate school organizations. One, who had 
considerable athletic ability, developed a very creditable track team, 
another became the leader in a debating club, while a third helped in 
forming a school orchestra. 

A teacher of chemistry found difficulty in controlling the behavior 
of two of the pupils in one of his laboratory sections until he hit upon 
the device of making them "class-foremen." They were capable and 
intelligent pupils and he assigned to them the duty of distributing 
and collecting the day's materials, and of showing some of the poorer 
pupils how to set up their apparatus and conduct their experiments. 
In this way he provided the boys with work that was well worth 
while for them, developed their initiative and self-control. At the 
same time he freed himself from certain routine duties, and found 
more time to supervise the work of the class. One of these boys has 
since specialized in chemistry in his college course. He states that 
he owed his original interest in the subject to this teacher who found 
for him a worth-while activity in a subject which up to that time had 
appealed to him only as an opportunity for boyish pranks. 



CHAPTER VI 

DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. — THE FUNCTION OF 
PUNISHMENT 

Punishment, Although the La§t Resort, is often a Neces- 
sary Means of Class Control.— It is agreed by most teachers 
and disciplinary officers that definite punishment as a method of 
securing good order should be avoided when it is possible to 
control the class by other means^ Indeed, some have gone to the 
extreme of saying that punishment should be banished from the 
school, since, as they assert, all infractions of discipline are due to 
improper methods of treating the pupil. Under the right condi- 
tions, they affirm, the unruly, the rebellious, and the vicious 
pupil vrould be unknown. Such persons take the position held 
by certain social reformers that the deHnquent pupil, like the 
criminal, is the product of his environment, and that the re- 
sponsibility, as well as the means for correction, rests with 
society> In other words, the larger social group of the com- 
munity and the smaller social group of the school should reform 
themselves rather than their individual members. While there is 
doubtless some truth in this contention, the position taken is 
extreme and impractical. The time has not as yet arrived when 
we can safely do away with jails, prisons, and houses of correc- 
tion, neither has the time come when the teacher can secure from 
all pupils respect and obedience by the methods of conduct- 
controls discussed in the two preceding chapters. (There are 
occasions when punishment, certain, swift, and severe is the 
only means of making the pupil realize that he must respect and 
obey the authority established over him through custom and by 
law.") 



I06 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

( It may be true that there are no bad boys in original nature, but 
the pupil with a defiant sneer on his face, with hidden and vicious 
cunning in his acts, with thieving and dishonest habits, and with 
obscene and immoral thoughts and conduct exists, whatever the 
cause; he must be dealt with, wisely to be sure, but energetically^ No 
false sentimentaUty, no abstract educational or social theories, can 
be in these cases a substitute for action, and the teacher who hesi- 
tates to deal with such pupils with vigor is not doing the wise thing 
nor the right thing. Whatever else he may do, and should do, he 
must punish such offenders. There are many less serious cases, too, 
that require more than words of advice and admonition. As has 
already been pointed out, discussions should come first, but there 
must always be behind the advice and the warning a potential some- 
thing that makes the words of the teacher more than mere words. 
I Words that have no relation to acts have no power in themselves to 
' change conduct. Words are mere symbols of reality. 

Punishment is of Two Main Kinds, Natural and Artifi- 

cial.-^When we think of punishment we generally have in mind 
some impleasant accompaniment of an act that is arbitrarily 
attached to this act by the will of some individual or set of in- 
dividuals. This is artificial punishment. There is, however, 
another kind of punishment, some painful consequence of an 
occurrence that issues of necessity from it. This is natural pun- 
ishment, i' When the child puts its hand on the hot stove there 
is the natural result, a burn, which is a punishment for the act.) 
When the child takes the sweets from the pantry the natural 
result is the pleasure derived from the taste of the jam and the 
sugar. The pain that comes from the slap on the hands is an 
artificial punishment, having no necessary connection with the 
child's conduct, but arbitrarily attached to it by the Another, 
(a) Natural punishment has certain clear advantages over 
artificial punishment. K Rousseau, Spencer and other educational 
writers and reformers have recognized certain superior values in 
natural punishment as compared with artificial punishment, and 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 107 

have advocated it as the chief, if not the only, means of correct- 
ing the child. ) Let the young person come in contact with the 
world and learn through bitter experience to avoid the dangerous 
and the evil. Hence, Emile was to be thrown among pick- 
pockets and courtesans in order to find out for himself what is 
safe and right. It was seen by Rousseau and by all "nat- 
uralists" in education that in the last analysis what makes any 
act desirable or undesirable, right or wrong, is its consequences. 
If these be pleasurable on the whole and in the long run, then 
they stamp the act with approval, if these be unpleasant or 
painful they stamp it with disapproval, and it is consequently 
avoided. i^The fact that natural punishment is in and of itself 
genuine, gives it its chief value.) Further, because it is genuine, 
it is accepted by the individual who receives it. { When punished 
by nature we are apt to acknowledge our faults and strive to 
correct them, and with as good grace as possible) We attach to 
ourselves the blame for our ignorance, our folly, or our per- 
versity. We do not blame the instrument that punishes us. It 
also follows, since natural punishment comes from the act that is 
punished, that it is regarded as inevitable. There is no chance 
to escape. The individual cannot trust to the caprice and 
ignorance of others to avoid his due. The child learns that 
sometimes the mother does not detect him when he invades the 
pantry, and again when he is caught his punishment may be 
quite perfunctory, if not altogether omitted. However, the 
child has also learned that when he touches the hot stove the 
burn will surely result. There is no chance of escaping this 
punishment. With the mother the child can take a chance, but 
never with the hot stove. Clt is because natural punishment is 
unvarying, certain, and genuine that it has obvious advantages over 
artificial punishment which sufers in just these partictdarsy 

On the other hand natural punishment has such obvious dis- 
advantages that practical common-sense at once shows us that it 
cannot be made to take the place of punishment that it attached 



I08 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

to an act by the fiat of human will. \In the first place, natural 
punishment is often excessively severe, and in many instances 
absolutely destructive to the individual, i When we play with 
fire the natural result is to be burned, but we may be consimied. 
i It is here that artificial punishment steps in and prevents the 

1/ foolish act that may have the most disastrous consequences^ 
(Again, natural punishment is often separated from the act that 
causes it by such a long period of time that the necessary con- 
nection between the initial behavior and the ultimate result is not 
clearly seen. Indeed, often it is not recognized as existing. The 
victim of general paresis is paying the full and awful penalty for 
acts now many years passed, and perhaps entirely forgotten; yet 
neither he nor his friends may even suspect the fact. The 
punishment for him accomplishes no apparent good. Surely, 
here nature is a poor schoolmaster. ^It is further to be remem- 

^^ bered that natural punishment is not necessarily connected with 
the person who originally committed the offence.; He may 
escape altogether, and in any case is likely to involve the inno- 
cent with him. Hence, natural punishment is not usually just 
in the sense of human justice. It punishes too excessively or too 
Hghtly; it punishes often in secret, and it punishes the guiltless^) 
Nobody but the blindest worshipper of nature could set up 
natural punishment as a substitute for intelligent, artificial 
punishment. 

(b) Artificial punishment must strive to secure the advantages of 
natural punishment, and at the same time avoid its dangers and 

^. faults.— We should not seek to do away with artificial punish- 
ment; we should, however, attempt to make it simulate natural 
punishment in certain particulars. In the first place, artificial 
punishment should be freed from caprice.) It should have the same 
unvarying character that natural punishment possesses. In 
order that this may be accomplished the disciplinarian should, 
as far as possible, punish similar offences in a uniform manner 
and make no exceptions in his punishment. If the pupil finds 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 109 

that he is punished today and tomorrow goes free, he looks 
upon the disciphne as a matter of pure individual feeling on the 
part of the teacher. He blames that teacher for the punish- 
ment; he does not blame himself for the act. If the pupil finds 
that he is punished while some other offender escapes, then he 
believes that the teacher is ^'playing favorites," and he expe- 
riences resentment toward the teacher. 
(^Artificial punishment should not only simulate natural punish- 
ment in appearing to be free from personal whim, it should also 
appear as the inevitable consequence of a wrong act.\ The teacher 
must be on the alert to detect the offender and make sure of his 
punishment. The pupil who is only occasionally caught in 
misbehavior is quite willing to take the chance. If he is reason- 
ably sure of detection in wrong doing he will be careful of his 
conduct. 

In order that artificial punishment may appear as an inevitable 
consequence of the act, it is sometimes wise to state in advance the 
punishment that is to be administered for offences that are sure to 
occur, and in any case it is desirable for the pupils to know what 
the consequences of these offences are to be.^ In this way, these 
punishments assume the regularity and the necessity of a law of na- 
ture. If the pupil complains of the punishment the teacher can easily 
reply, — "You knew in advance what would happen if you did this. 
You have no one to blame but yourself." In petty matters of dis- 
cipline this works out satisfactorily, as well as in more serious forms 
of misconduct, if the principle is properly administered. A concrete 
illustration of this is found in the case of a teacher who did not be- 
lieve in rules and regulations for high school pupils. He finally dis- 
covered that the written work in English composition was being 
handed in with great and increasing irregularity. At first he at- 

1 This statement is not to be taken as in opposition to that made in Chap- 
ter V. There it was said that the teacher should not threaten or scold his 
pupils. It is evident that such a procedure does more harm than good. 
However, there are certain rules in respect to important aspects of conduct 
that may wisely be stated in advance of their infraction. 



no INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

tempted to punish individual offenders when tlicy were clearly shirk- 
ing their work, but he failed to announce any general rule to apply to 
such cases. The result was that the pupils punished were resentful, 
and the disciphne of his class was impaired. With a succeeding class 
at the beginning of the term he definitely announced his rules for 
handing in written work and stated clearly the penalties that would 
be exacted in case of failure to live up to them. He enforced these 
rules to the letter, with the result that the work was done punctually 
and that those who were punished accepted the discipline with good 
grace. It should be borne in mind in laying down general rules, that 
none should be made unless there is a clear necessity; further, such 
rules and the punishments for their infraction should be moderate 
and rational. 

{ In artificial pumshmenf, as in natural punishment, there should 
he an obvious relation between the act and the penalty. ) Too often 
the punishment imposed by the teacher seems to have no neces- 
sary connection with the ofTence. As has been urged by Bagley, 
punishing pupils by assigning them extra school tasks is a 
dangerous procedure. The pupil seeing no reason why he should 
do this work, begins to dislike the work, when he should be made 
to attach dislike to the offence. It is evident that when the 
pupil does his work in a satisfactory manner he should not be 
compelled to do more as a punishment. If, however, he has 
failed to accomplish his task properly, then tlie natural conse- 
quence is that he should be made to complete this work. 

There are many examples of total or partial failure in discipline 
because of a failure of tlie teacher "to make the punishment fit the 
crime. H One of the commonest instances of this failure is to be found 
in punishment for dishonesty. A pupil who cheats on an examination 
is given zero on the test, a pupil who hands in a composition not 
his own is made to rewrite it. Generally the punishment ends there. 
To an extent the punishment is a legitimate one, but it fails in the 
fact that it is inadequate. Dishonesty is a moral delinquency, but 
the punishment merely emphasizes the fact that the work done is in 
the nature of the case worthless. The dishonest pupil receives the same 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL III 

punishment that befalls the pupil who fails to write the examination, 
or hand in the written work. Of course the work dishonestly done 
cannot be accepted, but to let the matter end here fails to distinguish 
between dishonesty and mere negligence or incompetency. The dis- 
honest pupil must be made to understand that he has committed an 
offence that is social in its character and the legitimate punishment 
is some form of social ostracism. The pupil who has shown that he 
is a cheat should in some way be separated from the group for the 
time being at least. He should, for example, be compelled to do all 
of his written work under the direct supervision of a teacher. 

(c) Artificial punishment must he a real punishment, not a 
pretense at punishment. — Not infrequently the punishment ad- 
ministered by the teacher fails to accomplish any purpose be- 
cause it is a pseudo-punishment; it is a mere make-believe. 
Teachers often go through the form of punishing the offender. 
It is obvious that the discipline administered must be a punish- 
ment for the pupil if it is to accomplish its purpose. 

Sending the offender out of the room is a practice quite generally 
followed by teachers in dealing with disciplinary problems. For 
many pupils this is no punishment at all. If no unpleasant con- 
sequences follow this dismissal; if the matter merely ends here, the 
dismissal may be just the thing that the pupil wishes. On the other 
hand, if dismissing pupils from the class is rare, and if pupils have a 
sense of pride, they may feel that this form of punishment is a dis- 
grace, and the penalty under such conditions may be very severe. 
In this connection it should be remembered that the punishment ob- 
jectively considered is not an adequate measure of its severity. For 
certain pupils a sarcastic remark by the teacher, though usually in- 
advisable, may be the severest of penalties; for other pupils it may 
have no significance. 

(d) (Artificial punishment must follow the ofence with as little 
delay as possible.W-ln animal training the wrong act is penalized 
at once. If delayed more than a few seconds the punishment 
will probably fail to be associated with the act. It is also true 



112 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

in the case of very young children that the discipline must be 
immediate. With older children and adults it is possible to 
separate offence and punishment by a considerable interval, but 
in general, punishment makes a greater impression the more 
quickly it follows misconduct. When punishment is long de- 
layed it is more apt to be considered as arbitrary and unjust. 
The offence has " grown cold," so to speak. 

There are some acts of misconduct that can be appropriately pun- 
ished only on the spot. To delay punishment in these cases means 
to do away with adequate punishment. The pupil who is openly im- 
pudent in the classroom must be dealt with then and there. The 
teacher is compelled to act with vigor, and at once, for his authority 
over the class has been indirectly challenged. On the other hand 
it may be necessary to postpone dealing with a disciplinary situation 
at times, either because the teacher is not sure who the offenders are, 
or because he is not quite certain as to the best form of punishment. 
The desire to deal promptly with disorder should not cause the teacher 
to act rashly. The young teacher often fails in class control because 
he becomes excited, and "goes up in the air." 

"While it is generally true that punishment becomes less effective 
the longer it is delayed, there is an apparent exception to the rul^ 
It has been foimd advantageous at times in dealing with serious acts 
of misconduct to keep the culprit in doubt as to just what is to be 
done with him.) In this case, while the final punishment has been 
postponed, punishment in a very real way is aheady being admim's- 
tered. The offender knows that he has been detected, he knows 
that he cannot escape severe discipline, and in imagination he ex- 
periences in many forms the penalty that is to come. 

(e) In cases of school discipline, artificial punishment should 
usually be administered by the teacher against whom the offence is 
committed.— f As a rule teachers should seek to control the in- 
dividuals in their classes themselves. They should not fall into 
the habit of sending their pupils to the disciplinary room or to 
the principal for every possible offence. The teacher who cannot 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL II3 

control his classes through his own personality, but who is forced 
to fall back on another for such control, is inevitably weak in 
discipline. However, when any trouble arises that is of such a 
serious nature that the teacher recognizes his inability to meet it 
effectively, he should call in a higher authority at once. Further 
than this, the teacher, particularly the novice, should not 
hesitate to consult with his superiors about matters of discipHne, 
and obtain advice from those more experienced than he. 

A teacher of long experience who has always maintained the best 
of order in his classes, has furnished me with the following instance 
in which he was forced to violate his unvarying rule of dealing with 
all personal matters of discipline directly: "On one occasion, when I 
was in charge of the boys in the basement during their lunch period, 
I noticed a big, burly fellow who had given no end of trouble to various 
teachers in the school, kicking a plate about the concrete floor. I 
stepped up to him and told him to 'stop,' but he replied with a con- 
temptuous look and a sneer, that it was none of my business, and 
that he should do as he pleased. The boys in the vicinity stopped 
and gathered about to see what was going to happen. It was plainly 
imperative that I should act, and act at once. If I had followed my 
instincts, I should probably have used physical means of coercion. 
However, I was no match in strength for the boy, and besides cor- 
poral punishment in any and all forms was forbidden by the rules of 
the school committee. Happily, I remembered that this boy had 
only a few days before been removed from the school, and that he 
had no right there. In fact, he was a trespasser. I told him to leave 
the building at once, and on his refusal to do so, I spoke to the janitor 
who was close at hand and asked him to step to the telephone and 
call the police. As the station was only a block away, the boy knew 
than an officer would be on hand in a few minutes. He had thought 
to make capital out of the situation, and to pose in the minds of some 
of his fellows as a bold and forceful person. In reality he was a cow- 
ard. When he heard me speak to the janitor, the color left his face; 
he picked up the plate and slunk away into the street, thoroughly 
discredited in the eyes even of his former admirers." 



114 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

.The Double Purpose of Pnmshmeiit.Y-Punishmenf may be 
!/ either punitive or corrective. In social evolution it arose largely 
through the desire of individuals to inflict harm and suffering 
on those who had injured them or their friends. The theory 
behind such punishment was that of "an eye for an eye" and 
"a tooth for a tooth." ^ When punishment was taken over as a 
social affair and the individual element was largely eliminated, 
the punitive notion of justice still prevailed to a large extent. 
( An individual was to suffer for his acts because they were wrong, 
because they called for punishment. (Gradually, however, an- 
other notion of punishment grew up, namely, — that the jus- 
tification for punishment was to be found in the fact that it 
restrained the evil doer and tended to reform him. ) . Hence, 
today we have in our social philosophy the theory that punish- 
ment should be corrective in its nature. Our prisons should not 
be places where the evil doer suffers unnecessarily; they should 
be reformatory institutions. The criminal should be punished in 
order to give a warning to others and to protect society. He 
should also be punished in such a way that he may be reformed 
and made a useful member of society. 

With this theory of the corrective nature of punishment, there 
can be no quarrel. However, those who advocate this theory in 
its most extreme form tend to remove from punishment all its 
moral significance. When the criminal is treated merely as a 
foolish man or a sick man, when no personal blame is attached to 
him for his deeds, both he and society tend to look upon wrong 
doing in a new light. In order to preserve the very necessary 
attitude of society toward the criminal, namely, — that he has 
done something which makes him deserve punishment, we must 
still attach to punishment a certain amount of the retributive 
sentiment. 

( What is true in regard to punishment as a general means of 
social control is likewise true of punishment as a means of en- 
forcing discipline in the school. } Obviously, the chief reason for 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL II5 

employing it as a means of controlling the conduct of the pupil 
is to correct the pupil and make him a desirable member of the 
school community. On the other hand, the teacher who treats 
all offences in a purely objective way, who does not on proper 
occasions enforce the moral aspects of the situation, has failed to 
emphasize the worth of right doing as such, and the meanness of 
wrong doing in and of itself. 

. The attitude in regard to the nature of the child advocated by 
the educational psychology of a former day has in some instances 
done harm in the control of the pupil. The "recapitulation theory" 
that found its early exposition in the writings of Rousseau and which 
has been one of the cardinal principles in the philosophy of Stanley 
Hall and his followers, saw in developing child nature much that 
harked back to the primitive impulses of barbarous and savage 
peoples. These native impulses were considered right because they 
were held to be natural. Hence the boy who stole, lied, and robbed 
orchards was simply manifesting those instincts which were sanc- 
tioned by countless ages of race experience. The teacher was told 
that such instincts were to be considered as essentially necessary to 
certain stages of development, and were not to be looked upon as 
manifestations of an evil nature. While there is an element of truth 
in this point of view (a truth, however, that has been greatly exag- 
gerated), it by no means follows that undesirable behavior is to be 
looked upon by the teacher as without moral significance. It is well 
not to take too seriously the misconduct of youth; we should not 
consider the gravest offences as certain evidence of utter depravity. 
On the other hand, it is equally important to make the pupil feel 
when he has done a wrong deed that he has committed a real offence. 
The teacher may make necessary allowances for the weakness of 
child nature, and at the same time impress the child with the gravity 
of his offence. The criticism of the Child Study Movement made a 
generation ago by Miinsterberg ^ was in part based upon the asser- 
tion that the teacher in assuming such an objective attitude in regard 
to the pupil impaired his practical attitude toward the child, a conten- 
tion in which there is much truth. 

* See Psychology and Life, pp. 101-144, particularly pp. 129-135 (1899). 



/' 



V 



Il6 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

Types of School Punishments. — Various methods of enforc- 
ing school discipline through punishment have been devised and 
practiced. Some of these are centuries old, while some are 
comparatively new. At present the kinds of punishment are 
not numerous and their severity is not great when compared with 
those of earlier times. / The traditional schoolmaster of earlier 
days took pride in the variety and ingenuity of the penalties that 
}>cf could inflict. He governed by fear, according to popular 
belief. However, there must have been many teachers in former 
generations of kindly nature, like Arnold of Rugby, who con- 
trolled those under them largely through a sympathetic and 
humane treatment.) 

(a) Corporal punishment. — Flogging at one time was the 
favorite method of controlling the unruly. According to tradi- 
tion the school teacher must assert his mastery by "having it 
out" in physical combat with the big boys of the district. To- 
day corporal punishment is a thing of the past. So seldom is it 
practiced that it may be left out of consideration as a means open 
to the teacher in the high school for enforcing order. While 
there are circumstances under which it might still prove salutary, 
the objections against it are so great and on the whole so well 
founded that we should not wish to bring it again into vogue, 
even if we could. / It is a safe rule to lay down that no teacher 
should, ever lay violent hands on a boy or a girl entrusted to his 
charge. ^\ 

(b) Keeping the pupil after school.-\Oi all the punishments 
used at the present time this is the most common.N All sorts of 
offences are penalized by requiring the pupil to report to the 
teacher at the end of the school day, and to remain for periods 
varying from a few minutes to hours. fThere is a good deal of 
diversity of opinion in regard to the value of this method of 
punishment. Some principals believe that it is an adequate 
means of dealing with most offences, indeed with all, except 
those of the gravest character, while others are of the opinion 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL II7 

that it is a mere makeshift and does not in any way get at the 
root of the matte^ In the opinion of the writer, this form of 
punishment is relied on to an unwarranted extent in many 
instances. For many ofTences it is not the natural form of 
punishment. Its arbitrary character is so obvious to the pupil 
that it does not adequately impress him. . Further than this, if 
constantly repeated it loses its effect because the pupil gets 
hardened to it and comes to expect it as a matter of course. 
There is some virtue in having a certain variety to punishment. \ 

The writer has collected a hundred instances of discipline, chosen 
at random, in which keeping the pupil after school was used as the 
exclusive or principal punishment. In this hundred instances the 
following offences in the order of their frequency are included: — Poor 
and careless work, inattention, whispering, making a disturbance, 
throwing chalk and paper wads, impudence, giggling, refusing to 
recite, truancy, reading a newspaper or book during recitation, copy- 
ing the work of a neighbor, falsehood, sticking a pin into the pupil 
sitting in front, signing parent's name to an excuse for absence. 
The noteworthy facts here are the wide range of offences punished in 
this way, and the varying gravity of the offences, ranging from simple 
carelessness in the class work to serious moral delinquencies such as 
dishonesty, truancy and falsehood. Obviously a punishment that is 
administered in this manner is seriously at fault in many instances. 
It is a well-established principle of criminal law that the severity of 
the punishment should bear a very close relation to the gravity of 
the crime, and that offences varying greatly in their nature should 
not be given identical punishment. It is further to be noted in regard 
to the cases here cited, that in a few instances the punishment seems 
to be the one best suited to the offence, but in the majority of in- 
stances the penalty bears no intrinsic relation to the misdemeanor. 
For example, — poor work in the class seems to demand preparation 
of the next day's lesson under the eyes of the teacher. The truant, 
too, should receive part of his punishment by being compelled to 
make up in school the hours that he has missed by his absence; re- 
fusing to recite in the class may demand that the pupil be required to 



Il8 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

recite outside of the class at the convenience of the teacher. How- 
ever, cheating, impudence, class disturbance and similar offences 
demand something more in the way of punishment than keeping the 
pupil after school. Doubtless the main reasons why keeping the 
pupU after school has become in most instances the chief form of 
discipHne are that this punishment is relatively easy to administer 
and has the merit of being a real punishment for most boys and girls. 
In considering the question of the proper ways to administer this 
penalty, the problem arises as to whether school tasks or other similar 
occupations should be assigned to pupils at this time. It seems to 
the writer that the question as to whether or not school work should 
be required of the pupil who is staying after school depends to a con- 
siderable extent on the reason why he is compelled to remain. Ob- 
viously if his offence has been something that directly or indirectly 
connects itself with the slighting of his work, then it is quite necessary 
that he should make up this work, and the appropriate time to do 
this is during the extended school session. On the other hand, if his 
misconduct in no way involves his work, then it is often best to make 
the punishment doubly severe by requiring the pupil to stay after 
school with no occupation to engage his attention. 

(c) Dismissal from the class. — Probably the commonest form 
of punishment employed by most high school teachers next to 
requiring the pupil to remain after school is that of sending the 
offender out of the room. As has been said above, this punish- 
ment varies greatly in severity in accordance with the general 
attitude of the class in regard to it, in accordance with its fre- 
quency, and in accordance with what follows the dismissal. 
When used excessively it becomes so common-place that the 
pupils think little about it; when followed by no further conse- 
quences it is generally weak and at times worse than useless. 
Some teachers, while admitting its inadequacy, justify its use as a 
means of temporarily getting rid of a pupil who is disturbing the 
class. When employed for this purpose it is a confession of 
weakness on the part of the teacher, and cannot under ordinary 
circumstances be justified. It is a safe rule to follow to make 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL II9 

dismissal from the class a serious affair and to consider it as 
preliminary to further disciplinary measures. When the teacher 
takes this attitude toward it, dismissal from the class becomes 
one of the most impressive of all punishments. 

Dismissal, like keeping the pupil after school, is used for a variety 
of offences. The most common cause, however, according to the ex- 
perience of the writer is for cases of misconduct that involve class 
disturbance. In fifty cases in which this mode of punishment was 
recorded, forty-five were clearly of this nature. This fact would 
seem to indicate that the most compelling motive of the teacher in 
sending the pupil from the room was to get rid of him temporarily, 
and would justif}'- the conclusion that this form of punishment is as 
a rule not well devised and thought out. In most cases in which it is 
employed it is probably a makeshift; often an unwise method of deal- 
ing with a troublesome situation. 

(d) Removal of privileges. — ^Another common form of punish- 
ment employed by teachers is to deprive the offender of some 
privilege enjoyed by the pupils as a whole. In the elementary 
school, for example, it is the practice in some localities to close 
the afternoon session fifteen minutes earlier than the scheduled 
time, for those whose behavior has been satisfactory during the 
day. The pupils who have failed in some portion of their work 
or who have been disorderly are required to remain until the 
end of the day. While in a sense this is merely keeping the 
pupils requiring discipline after school, the emphasis is different, 
and many principals favor this punishment for minor offences. 
A common form of discipline in the high school is to refuse to 
those pupils who are low in their class standing or who are un- 
satisfactory in their conduct permission to play on athletic 
teams and participate in the activities of school organizations. 
In many instances this is an extremely effective method of 
punishment. In some instances teachers have removed priv- 
ileges from entire classes because of the unsatisfactory conduct 
of certain members. 



I20 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

A case in point is that of a teacher of English who allowed the 
pupils in her classes in Shakespeare to dramatize in a simple manner 
various scenes from the plays that they were reading. This they 
enjoyed exceedingly. However, a few members of the class during 
the less interesting parts of the lesson were inattentive and in mild 
disorder. These pupils she failed to bring under satisfactory control, 
and at last she adopted the expedient of placing the correction of 
their offences in the hands of the class itself. She explained to the 
members that the progress of the work was being seriously hindered 
by a few who were not willing to keep proper order, and that in the 
future there would be no time for dramatization imless conditions were 
changed. She said that she would discontinue this phase of the work 
until the disorderly members of the class were willing heartily to 
cooperate with the majority and keep a proper attitude at all times. 
She added that it was in the power of the class to make all of its mem- 
bers conduct themselves as they should. The pupils were impressed. 
There was no further trouble, and in a few days the privilege was 
restored. 

It should be pointed out in this connection that discipUning the 
class as a whole for the faults of a few must be done with extreme 
care and tact. When the offence is something that can be easily 
remedied by the class as a whole, and when the individual members 
of the class see the justice of the teacher's position, the effect is ex- 
cellent, as in the instance just given. When, however, the class has 
the attitude that the acts of a few are not their immediate concern, 
and when further they have little influence in controlling the conduct 
of their mates, the innocent pupils are apt to feel that they are being 
unjustly treated, and under these conditions a spirit of resentment 
and antagonism toward the teacher is almost certain to arise. 

(e) Isolation of the of ending pupil. — ^A punishment that is 
closely related to that just discussed is the isolation of the 
offender. He is entirely removed from the group, as for exam- 
ple, when he is no longer allowed to attend the class, or he re- 
mains with his mates, but is treated in such a way that he is 
clearly set apart from them. The extreme forms of this punish- 
ment are suspension and expulsion. These radical measures are 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 121 

used, however, only in a few cases when the misconduct is 
unusually grave or oft repeated. According to Dr. Montes- 
sori's social and educational philosophy, isolation is the chief, if 
not the sole method of control. The disobedient pupil in the 
"House of Childhood" is considered as the sick child who can no 
longer safely associate with the other children. Therefore, he 
must be removed from them until he is able to conduct himself 
as his fellows do. There is no doubt that this method of punish- 
ment is impressive. The average boy and girl have a strong 
social consciousness. In Chapter II. of this book, we have 
emphasized the strength of the group instinct and discussed its 
significance in the lives of adolescents. 

There are various forms which punishment by isolation may take. 
They are most effective as a rule when the offender is still kept with 
the group, but is not permitted to take part in its activities in the 
ordinary way. He may be allowed to sit in the classroom, but he is 
placed in a seat removed from the rest of the pupils. Perhaps his 
punishment is that he may hsten, but will not be called upon to recite 
or to participate in the discussions. The strength of the punishment 
in any case consists in the fact not merely that he is removed from 
others, but that he feels his isolation and that his companions recog- 
nize it. The following example of discipline by this method em- 
phasizes this aspect of the punishment: — 

In a large city high school the pupUs are compelled to take their 
lunches in several different sections to prevent overcrowding. In 
each section a group of boys is provided with chairs and a table. The 
table they are required to leave in proper condition for the group 
that follows. Boys are assigned in turns to look out for the condition 
of the table at which they eat. One boy when the time came for him 
to serve refused, saying that he did not propose "to clean up after 
anybody but himself." The penalty for this refusal to cooperate 
with his fellows was to assign him a chair and a table apart from the 
others and require him to keep these in proper order. This he did 
for a few days, but before the end of the week he came to the prin- 
cipal's office and requested to be allowed to eat with the others. He 



122 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

was told that the present arrangement was quite satisfactory, and 
that it could continue without difficulty throughout the year. How- 
ever, the boy begged to be permitted to do as the rest did. He said, — 
"I can't stand it to be placed off there by myself and see the rest of 
the fellows looking over at me and grinning. I've got enough." The 
principal remitted the penalty, and the boy never again showed the 
slightest incHnation not to cooperate with his companions. 

(f) Reproof. — Reproof when administered under proper con- 
ditions is one of the most severe forms of punishment. In 
order that it may be effective, the offender must respect the 
authority of the person who gives the reproof and must desire 
his approbation. Otherwise it has little significance. The 
psychology of reproof is found in the social consciousness of the 
individual, which as we have seen, asserts itself in a striking 
manner during the high school age. If the pupil holds the 
teacher in small regard, however, he is not apt to care for his 
reprimand. Indeed, he may glory in it, particularly if his 
punishment in any way tends to make a hero of him in the eyes 
of his mates. Reproof takes various forms. It may be given in 
private by the disciplinary officer, or it may be given in the 
presence of the offender's classmates by the teacher. In this 
latter instance if it is mere fault-finding and scolding it is unwise. 
If, on the other hand it is done with impressiveness and dignity, 
and only when the occasion requires it, the reproof is given 
much greater weight by the fact that it is administered in public. 
So severe is it under these circumstances that it should not be 
employed for minor offences and trivial lapses in order. Con- 
cerning these latter it is better for the teacher to speak to the 
pupil after the class exercise. 

When reproof carries with it the expressed or implied dis- 
approval of the group to which the offender belongs it is capable 
of causing in its more pronounced forms the most severe mental 
suffering, suffering far greater than that arising from the objec- 
tive punishment that may accompany it. The malefactor often 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 1 23 

fears more the attitude of society toward him than he does the 
confinement of prison walls. On the other hand the political 
offender may go to the dungeon or to the scaffold with head erect 
and with joy in his heart, because he believes that he has the 
approval of those whose opinions he respects, those who are his 
real " social self," in the language of James.^ The most adequate 
punishment for certain school offences is based on the disap- 
proval by the group of the offences of its individual mem- 
bers. It is here that various forms of student self-government 
have their chief value. It is highly important that all school 
offences that are social in their character should receive this form 
of punishment whenever it is possible to administer it. 

On various occasions reference has been made to dishonesty in 
school work and methods of adequately dealing with it. It has been 
pointed out that many of the punishments have Httle effect, largely 
because they are inadequate or not suited to the nature of the of- 
fence. The cheat should be looked upon as a social offender, one 
who injures the group, and should be made to suffer the contempt of 
the group toward him. If he could be made to feel that his fellows 
despise underhand methods and that they will know when he prac- 
tices them, it would be relatively easy to bring about a reform in 
school honesty. An example in point is the following: — In a class in 
a girls' high school two examination papers were handed in that con- 
tained errors so similar that there could be no doubt that the pupils 
concerned had given and received aid from each other. The teacher 
called them before him and they admitted that they had cheated. 
They were told that a mere mark of zero on their examination would 
not be considered a sufficient punishment for what they had done 
since their misconduct was in reality an offence against the class as 
a whole. It was pointed out to them that they had taken an unfair 
advantage of their classmates whose work was original, and further 
they had to an extent destroyed the confidence of the teacher in the 
class, since he could no longer feel like trusting its members in the 
way in which he had previously done. The whole matter, he told 

^ See Principles of Psychology, Vol. I., pp. 293-296 (1890). 



124 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

them, must be referred to the class, to whom they must make 
an adequate apology for what they had done. This method was 
employed. The circumstance was brought to the attention of the 
class through one of its leading members, and the class and the of- 
fending pupils wrote letters of apology to the instructor. This ended 
the incident, but it produced a profound impression on all. In some 
respects the punishment was drastic, but in dealing with the difl&- 
culty "at its source," it brought the seriousness of the whole practice 
to the attention of the school and aroused public sentiment against it, 
a most wholesome result. In the opinion of the writer, we need in 
school dishonesty as in community dishonesty the drastic corrective 
of "pitiless pubUcity." 

(g) Sarcasm and Contempt. — ^A more severe form of punish- 
ment than reprimand and reproof, although closely related to 
it, is holding the offender up to ridicule or directing sarcasm 
against him. This method of discipline should not be employed 
without adequate justification. As a rule sarcasm is a most 
dangerous instrument. Ill-natured and repeated sarcasm should 
never be indulged in. Pupils resent being held in contempt, or 
being the butts of fun and ridicule. Nothing will arouse an- 
tagonism against the teacher more quickly. There is one t3^e of i 
offence, however, that is most appropriately dealt with in thisj 
way, namely, impudence and insolence. The impudent pupil 
assumes the attitude of superiority to the teacher, and contempt 
for him. This attitude can never be tolerated. It is absolutely 
destructive to class control and must always be met vigorously 
and quickly. The teacher who can by a sudden turn of wit put 
the bumptious pupil in his place, who can turn the tables on hirq 
and " show him up " before the class, is not likely to have further 
trouble with him. The average boy and girl shrink from ap- 
pearing in a ridiculous light before others. Therefore, the 
teacher who knows how to use sarcasm discreetly, but with 
telling effect is not likely to have serious trouble from impudent 
pupils. 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 1 25 

The following example of discipline illustrates how loath the aver- 
age pupil is to appear in a ridiculous Hght before others: — A boy 
skipped a part of his shop period and went to the lunch room without 
permission. Here he was discovered by the principal eating a piece 
of cake. He was told to go immediately into the shop and show the 
half eaten cake to the teacher, and explain to him the cause of his 
absence. So ashamed was the boy to appear before the rest of the 
class in this ridiculous manner that he opened the door of the shop 
just far enough to thrust through his head and then called the instruc- 
tor to come outside. Up to this time he had been a troublesome boy, 
but the discipHne on this occasion proved so wholesome that he has 
given little annoyance since. 

(h) Appeal to Parents. — It is the general practice in school 
discipline to call in the parents or guardians of a pupil whose 
conduct is such that it cannot be dealt with satisfactorily by 
teachers and principals. This is an effective punishment only 
when the disapproval of the parent is feared by the pupil. In 
many instances the pupil who is a serious disciplinary problem 
in school is the same sort of problem at home, and the father 
and mother are as little capable of controlling him as are his 
instructors. In those instances, however, in which the pupil 
respects parental authority, this method of punishment pro- 
duces satisfactory results. Seldom do parents refuse to co- 
operate when called in. Too often, unfortunately, parents them- 
selves fail in authority. 

Important Maxims of Discipline. — In bringing to a conclu- 
sion the discussion of the preceding pages concerning discipline, 
it may be well to emphasize certain rules or maxims in regard 
to pupil-control that every teacher should keep in mind. Most 
of these have already been discussed at some length. They will 
be restated by way of summary. Others have not been ex- 
plicitly mentioned but have been implied. A few have not been 
touched on in any form. These maxims are: — 

(a) The teacher should always strive to enforce the control of his 



126 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

classes by ifidirect means. — The existence of positive disorder is 
always an evidence of unsatisfactory conditions. These may be 
due to the attitude of individual pupils or of the class as a group. 
An undesirable attitude is best changed by indirect means. 

(b) // direct control is necessary, punishment should be avoided 
whenever results can be accomplished by other means. — It must be 
remembered that punishment in itself is never desirable. It 
tends to produce unsatisfactory attitudes, at times causing sur- 
liness, revolt, and open rebellion. 

(c) When punishme?it is necessary it should be administered 
with vigor. — While the principle of " f rightfulness " is dangerous, 
punishment should be a reality, and not a pretense. 

(d) Artificial punishment should strive to combine in itself all 
of the advantages of natural punishment, at the same time avoiding 
its obvious defects. — For this reason no teacher can afford to 
administer punishment in a haphazard, impulsive, or stereo- 
typed manner. Effective punishments must be "thought out." 

(e) Punishment must impress the ojffender as having a moral 
implication. — Whatever the views of the teacher in regard to its 
function, it must impress the pupil as a just and necessary con- 
sequence of a wrong act. 

(f) The teacher should administer his own discipline as far as 
possible. — To ask outside aid is a confession of weakness. No 
teacher can succeed ultimately who does not rely on his own 
ability to control. 

(g) The teacher should frankly discuss his disciplinary problems 
with his superiors and colleagues, mid ask for their advice. — The 
teacher, particularly the novice, through fear of criticism often 
keeps silent in regard to classroom difficulties, when he should 
consult the principal, and older and more experienced teachers, 
not with the idea of giving over the control of the class to them, 
but for the purpose of obtaining their counsel and s)anpathetic 
criticism. 

(h) The most effective form of punishment is social in its char- 



DISCIPLINE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 1 27 

acter. — The pupil shrinks from the disapproval of those whom he 
respects, particularly from the disapproval of his fellows. When 
disapproval takes the form of scorn or contempt it surpasses in 
severity the more objective forms of punishment. 

(i) In dealing with cases of discipline the teacher must act with 
decision and promptness, but must make sure that he has isolated 
the individual offenders and that he knows exactly the nature of the 
offejtce. — It is not safe to punish in the dark. Nothing arouses 
the antagonism of the pupil more than to be punished unjustly. , 
The pupil should recognize the seriousness of his delinquency, 
and the justice and necessity of his punishment. The high 
school pupil is sufficiently mature to understand the conse- 
quences of his acts. He should be enlightened by the teacher. 
However, mere enlightenment is not in and of itself sufl&cient 
to bring desirable results. Mere knowledge of results may not 
have the necessary strength to insure proper conduct. Remote 
consequences must be made vivid, real, and to an extent present. 
Reforms in the life of the individual and of society must appeal 
to more than reason; they must appeal to the desire to escape 
punishment, to ideals and to prejudices, to be effective. 

(j) As a rule it is not wise to punish the group for the misconduct 
of individuals. — When, however, the group wilfully conceal the 
guilty individuals whose offences are of a serious nature, or when 
it is in their power to control and correct individual misconduct 
and they are unwilling to do so, then they are in a sense equally 
guilty, and should be made to realize their collective responsi- 
bility. 



CHAPTER VII 

ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 

The Maximally Efficient Class should be the Ideal of the 
Teacher. — No teacher should be content with an average class, 
or a satisfactory class, ^e should strive to have each and every 

t^'^lass working under conditions of maximal efficiency. J pie 
should constantly keep in mind the fact that no class is doing its 
best unless all of its members are engaged during the entire recitation 
period in actively performing work that is distinctly worth while\ 
Such ideal conditions can probably never be completely realized, 
but they can be approximated. Few teachers seem to have 
distinctly before them the problem of eliminating waste. They 
are content to use uneconomical methods and to achieve medio- 
q*e results. \ Probably few elates in the high school are more 

ly^thsiu "fifty per cent, efficient.") Pupils are not really at work 
more than half of the time. Occasionally the visitor finds a 
class in which every pupil appears busy from assembly to dis- 
missal, but such classes are rare. 

The writer has attempted to estimate in various high school classes 
that he has visited the amount of time that pupils are actively en- 
gaged in their school work, and he has found results that are indeed 
astonishing. In two hundred classes considered he found one in which 
each pupil was mentally active but two minutes of the total forty- 
five; five in which each pupil was active for approximately five min- 
utes; nine for ten minutes; twenty-one for fifteen minutes; thirty-seven 
for twenty minutes; fifty-five for twenty-five minutes; thirty-eight 
for thirty minutes; twenty-two for thirty-five minutes; nine for forty 
minutes, and three for forty-two minutes, f These observations seem 
"^^ to indicate that under ordinary classroom conditions in a large-sized 

128 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 1 29 

high school, half of the school day is wsistedj While conditions vary 
greatly with various teachers, subjects, schools, and classes, it is 
probable that on the average the waste is no less than that found in 
the classes observed. 

The Causes of Waste in the Classroom are Varied. — 

Therejs^o one jingle cause for waste in the classroom. Many 
factors usually contribute to brmg about the undesirable result. 
However, the various kinds of loss may be traced to a few main 
sources. In general, these resemble to a considerable degree the 
causes that are responsible for loss in the factory and business 
establishment. Hence in this respect a profitable comparison 
may be made between the school and the industries. 
/ yihe main sources of waste in the industries are to be found 
lin the unsatisfactory external conditions under which the work 
lis done, unsatisfactory physical and mental conditions of the 
•workers, and unsatisfactory methods used by the workmen in 
accomplishing their tasks. The external conditions relate to the 
building in which the work is done; the arrangement, routing, 
and distribution of tools, supplies and other materials; the plac- 
ing of machines, supply-boxes, and receptacles, and the presence 
or the absence of chairs, stools, and other furniture.";/ The phys- 
ical condition of the workman involves the question of the length 
of rest periods, freedom from unnecessary strain, and the proper 
distribution of periods of rest. ^ Xhe men tal condition of the 
workman is closely related to his attitude toward the work, his 
success in accomplishing his task, the reward which he receives 
jforjt, and the presence or absence of distractions, annoyance, 
and worry. The methods employed by the workman in accom- 
plishing his task are either wasteful or economical in terms of the 
number of motions that are employed in obtaining a given result. 
The ideal is to eliminate all unnecessary and clumsy movements, 
and to accomplish this the workman must be properly super- 
vised and taught to perform his task under uniform conditions. 
He must have constantly before him the knowledge of what a 



130 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

desirable product is; he must be given careful instruction as how 
best to obtain this product; and a standard of achievement in 
the amount to be done in each day's work must be set. 

In the Classroom the Physical Conditions must be such 
that the Work may be done under the Best Possible Cir- 
cumstances. — These physical conditions are concerned with the 
following details of equipment and arrangement of the school 
building: — 

(a) -^he characteristics of the classroom. — In order that the 
work of the class may be done under the best possible conditions 
the classroom must be suited to its purpose. It should be grog^ 
e^ly lighted, heated, and ventilated. No teacher should consider 
these details trivial. \The temperature should not be above sixty- 
eight degrees Fahrenheit; the air should be in circulation and 
reasonably fresh; and the pupils should be able to see the work 
that they are doing at the seats or on the blackboards without 
effort or eye strain?) As a rule the teacher has little to do with 
these conditions, but in so far as they are in any way under his 
control, he should strive to have them satisfactory. The teacher 
who refused to take readings of the thermometer because he did 
not propose to do the work of the janitor, had a small conception 
of his function. 

,,|^Not only should the room be properly heated, lighted and 
ventilated, it should be of a size suited to the class^ Not in- 
frequently is it the case that a large class is crowded into a small 
room, or a small class assigned to a room large enough to hold 
four times its, number. If a small class is assigned to a large 
room the teacher should aim to so arrange it that he can come 
in as close contact with the pupil as possible. He should not, as 
is sometimes the case, be seated on a raised platform behind a 
desk, with the pupils seated on one side of the room, and placed 
from the front to the rear. The teacher has an intimate relation 
to his class; he should be neither mentally nor physically remote. 
Often physical remoteness leads to mental remoteness. 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 131 

The arrangement of the seats in most classes is unsatisfactory. 
The placing of desks in formal rows is a device but poorly suited 
to efficient teaching. As we have previously said the class 
should be seated in a semi-circle, with the teacher at the center. 
Under these conditions each pupil would look directly into the 
faces of his classmates and the teacher would have the position 
that would give him the most direct relation to the individual 
members of the class. It is a fact worth noting that we have the 
proper seating of pupils only at the extremes of the educational 
ladder, namely, — in the kindergarten and in the seminary 
courses in the university. As we progress through the grades, 
the high school and the college, the relation between teacher and 
pupil becomes more and more remote, reaching its culmination 
in large lecture classes where the instructor stands at his desk 
and gives a formal talk to his pupils for an entire period. 

(b)( The position and arrangement of cabinets, supply closets, 
demonstration apparatus and other illustrative materials.— fit is 
important that all materials for classroom use should be so "' 
p)laced as to be readily accessible to the pupils. Here we have a 
question analogous to that of routing in the industries. A large 
amount of waste has been eliminated in shops, factories, and 
mercantile establishments by devising plans for furnishing the 
workmen with their materials in the most direct and rapid man- 
ner possible. One of the most remarkable features of the Ford 
plant in Detroit is the system by which the various parts that 
enter into the manufacture of an automobile are conveyed to the 
point at which they are to be used at the proper time. Any 
large industrial establishment that attempted to operate to- 
day without a carefully devised plan of routing would be a 
failure. 

[In the schoolroom we have a double problem of routing, 
namely, — that of bringing the necessary materials to the pupil 
on the one hand and bringing the pupil to the materials on the 
other./; The distribution of papers, pencils and other tools of 



132 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

school industry is an example of the former; the sending of pupils 
in groups to the blackboard is an illustration of the latter. 

Many teachers waste several minutes each day in such mechanical 
operations as the distribution of corrected themes in English and 
other exercises. Some perhaps regard attention to such details as 
too trivial to be considered by a high school teacher. However, it 
should never be forgotten that it is no small matter to save for class 
instruction every minute possible. The mechanics of teaching should 
be reduced to a minimum. In most blackboard work unnecessary 
time is consumed not only in getting the pupils to the board, but in 
assigning them to the space at which they are to work. The whole 
procedure is often quite haphazard. The teacher who requires groups 
of pupils to work at the board should have a plan. Each pupil should 
be assigned to a definite place marked off and permanently set apart 
for him. It is well to have pupils who are to do board work pass 
directly to the board on entering the room at the beginning of the 
hour and start on their work at once. In one class in which this 
method was tried it was found that there was a saving over former 
practice of twenty minutes a week. In the school year this was the 
equivalent of adding approximately sixteen full recitation periods in 
this subject. 

In the high school the problem of routing materials is most im- 
portant in laboratory instruction in the sciences. Too often there is 
no arrangement and classification of supplies and apparatus to be 
used. They are placed in closets and cases in the manner that at the 
time seems most convenient. In only a few instances has the writer 
found a laboratory in which the arranging and routing of materials 
has been worked out in systematic detail. In one laboratory the 
apparatus for each experiment was arranged in separate boxes for the 
use of individual pupils, and was carefully filed according to a decimal 
system of classification, after the method used in the most advanced 
industrial establishments in their tool-rooms. Class-foremen were 
assigned the task of bringing out these materials when needed and 
placing them where the pupils could find them at hand. General 
supplies were arranged on a central table in such a manner that the 
pupils who were busy at the work tables could obtain them by merely 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 133 

turning round. At the end of the period all materials were restored 
to their proper places. The whole operation required less than 
three minutes. In some laboratories the time consumed in the sort- 
ing and routing of materials is not infrequently one-tenth of the total 
ninety minutes.^ 

(it is very important that illustrative materials ^ should be of 
such a nature that they can be seen; and they should be so placed 
that they can be seen.^ Teachers fail to consider sufficiently the 
question of clearly presenting to the pupils the essential objects 
that are to supplement oral instruction. Maps are few, poor, and 
often placed in remote and obscure places where their value is 
nil. Blackboard work is done in such a manner that it often 
seems a waste of time. The writing of many pupils is indistinct, 
sometimes so small that it cannot be read ten feet away, and not 
infrequently so spaced as to be easily confused with the writing 
of others. Further, the board is so lighted that it is seldom any 
one part of it can be seen by all of the members of the class; and 
there are often large portions that are not visible to a considera- 
ble part of the class. 

(c) The use of the blackboard, — The foregoing discussion of the 
use of the blackboard leads us to a further consideration of this 
important topic. There is probably no one device employed in 
class instruction that is used with so little consideration and with 
so much waste. We have already seen that the problem of 
routing the pupils to the board and of placing them properly 
is by no means a trivial consideration, and that this is further 
complicated by the fact that the board is often so situated and 
the writing is so slovenly and indistinct that the written work 
can be seen only with diflSculty, sometimes not at all. Added to 
these obvious abuses are others of an equally grave nature. 

We can approach a more detailed consideration of this matter 
by asking what are the reasons for the use of the boards. The 

1 See Chapter IV., p. 63. 2 See Chapter XIL 



134 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

chief justification for work at the board is to bring to the atten- 
tion of the class as a whole some fact or principle that needs 
visual presentation. Further, the board may at times be used as 
a means for enabling the teacher to see and correct most econom- 
ically the mistakes of individual pupils. Some teachers assert 
that for this purpose this method is better than that of having 
the pupils do written work at their seats. Again, it is advan- 
tageous at times to send pupils to the board for the purpose of 
relieving the tedium of constant work at the desks. It is un- 
fortunate that we cannot provide in our school equipment, desks 
at which pupils may do part of their work when standing, since 
the constant sitting posture is one of the chief causes for the 
weariness and tedium connected with school tasks. 

If we assign blackboard work to pupils for purposes of general 
class instruction it is obvious that those parts of the board should 
be used that can best be seen by the entire class. Other things 
being equal, when only a portion of the blackboard space is to be 
utilized, the front board should be given the preference. Quite 
often this is not the case. Teachers as a rule seem to prefer to 
use the boards at the sides of the room. Not infrequently they 
use the boards at the rear. 

The only justification for using the boards at the rear of the room 
is when all of the other boards are occupied, when the work placed 
there can more readily be seen than when it is written elsewhere, 
when those who are at their seats are doing similar work, and the 
teacher does not wish them to see the work on the board until they 
have finished their task. This sometimes happens, for example, in a 
drill exercise in stenography, when one pupil is sent to the board to 
write the outlines from the dictation of the teacher, and the members 
at the seats are required to do the same. At the end of the exercise 
the work of the class as a whole is compared with the work done by 
the pupil at the board for the purpose of rapid correction. While 
this procedure is justified, it is a better method to have the correct 
forms previously written on the board at the front of the room, and 
then concealed from view by a map until the time for their use arrives. 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 135 

It is not desirable to place on the board errors that are peculiar 
and individual. There is no justification for calling to the atten- 
tion of the class as a whole mistakes that only a few are apt to 
make. Not only is it a waste of time, but there is danger of 
impressing the class with the incorrect form and confusing it with 
the correct usage. 

A considerable part of the blackboard work done in Engbsh, foreign 
languages, and mathematics is in direct violation of this principle, 
and for this reason cannot be too strongly condemned. It is a com- 
mon practice in such a subject as Latin to assign the written composi- 
tion prepared outside of the class to individuals to be placed on the 
board. All kinds of mistakes appear, some of them errors that are 
common, but many of them individual. There is little general ad- 
vantage, and much waste in such procedure. A much better method 
is to assign to all the pupils work at their seats; to require this to be 
handed in to the teacher, who looks it over and corrects it, calling the 
attention of the pupil concerned to his individual mistakes and point- 
ing out to the class as a whole the common errors. Of course the 
great objection to such a method Hes in the fact that it requires an 
additional amount of work on the part of the teacher who is as a 
rule overburdened with school duties. This objection may in part 
be removed by requiring the pupils in class to write out only a part 
of their exercise. If this is a fair sampling, and if they do not know 
in advance what part of the work they will be called upon to write, 
the results will be not far different from those that would be obtained 
if they were assigned the entire exercise to be written in the class 
period. 

When errors in blackboard work are corrected they should be 
so definitely emphasized that they are forced upon the attention 
of the class as a whole. There is practically no value in hurried 
and indistinct correction. Indeed at times such corrections may 
be worse than useless, the result being that the class becomes un- 
certain and confused as to what is right and what is wrong. 

Far too much of the work done on the blackboard is of the 
stereotyped kind. In most instances instruction would be 



136 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

greatly improved if it were omitted and some other form of 
written work employed. Often it is done without any clear 
purpose on the part of the teacher. It seems to be accepted as 
the proper thing to do because it is the tradition to do it. On the 
other hand most teachers do not use the board enough them- 
selves. There are many matters that come up in the course of a 
recitation that could be clarified and vivified through visual 
presentation and which are left in the realm of abstractions. 
The board in front of the room is an excellent medium for teach- 
ing of this sort. 

Let us compare two classes in geometry as we commonly find them 
in the average high school. In the first class the instruction is of the 
lesson-hearing type, and centers around class work on the board; in 
the second the instruction is of the development type and is con- 
stantly under the guidance of the teacher, who uses the blackboard 
to make emphatic and clear each step in the processes that are being 
presented. In the first class the pupils assemble, the teacher calls 
the roll, and then begins: "Master Smith, you may go to the board 
and write out the first proposition in today's lesson; Miss Johnson, 
you may write out the second; Miss Adams, the third; Master White, 
the fourth." Perhaps all of the pupils are sent to the board, several 
working on the same proposition, or perhaps some remain at their 
seats to do the work that others are doing on the board, or to be 
questioned about other parts of the lesson, often apparently to kill 
time until those at the board are ready to recite. Then the pupils 
arc called on, one by one and they go through their proofs, often in a 
halting and indistinct way. Sometimes the teacher corrects the mis- 
takes, sometimes calls upon the pupils at their seats to make correc- 
tions. The whole procedure is more or less hazy and obscure; it 
lacks the clear-cut incisiveness necessary to make a distinct impres- 
sion on the minds of the learners. In this case the blackboard serves 
no purpose that might not be better accomplished by other means. 

How different is the result in the second class. Here the pupils 
are given a brief written test on the assignment for tlie day. This is 
followed by the teacher's discussing with the class the chief errors 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 137 

found in yesterday's test, and in other written work that the pupils 
have submitted. These common mistakes are made clear through a 
use of the board. Finally the lesson for the coming day is taken up. 
The teacher draws the necessary figures on the board, and discusses 
with the class the points essential in the statement of the new proposi- 
tions and in their proof. Perhaps he may vary the procedure by 
sending one of the pupils to the board to work under his direction and 
in accordance with the suggestions of the class. In the first example 
cited, the entire board is used; much of the written work is indistinct, 
and some of the figures not properly constructed. The pupils must 
turn around in their seats to follow parts of the explanations. In the 
second instance, all of the work is directly before the class; but one 
figure is presented at a time; it is correctly and distinctly drawn, and 
every step is clearly brought out in orderly fashion. There can be no 
doubt as to which type of recitation is the better. While much of the 
superiority of the second class is due to the fact that it is primarily 
of the developing as distinguished from the lesson-hearing type, the 
proper use of the blackboard by the teacher contributes in no small 
degree to its excellence. 

In further contrast to this class exercise in geometry of the profitless 
lesson-hearing type is the following recitation in commercial arith- 
metic. The subject under consideration is aliquot parts, and the 
aim of the lesson is to furnish the pupils with a knowledge of methods 
of procedure, to acquaint them with short cuts, and to give them skill 
in fundamental operations. The teacher stands at the board facing 
the class. Now and then he turns for a moment to write a part of a 
problem on the board and to develop it step by step with the coopera- 
tion of his pupils. At times he asks drill questions, rapidly, crisply, 
and emphatically, calling upon various pupils in irregular order. 
Again, he addresses the class as a whole with a question requiring 
judgment. At such times he leaves a moment for deUberation be- 
fore he requests the answer. Pupils who reply to the questions are 
asked to speak distinctly so that all can hear. No member of the 
class is singled out and given individual drill, but the entire group is 
kept actively attentive during the class period. The "pupil-teacher" 
attitude is at no time in evidence. The board work is for the purpose 
of gaining the attention of all the pupils. 



138 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

The recitation is characterized throughout by interest and mental 
alertness. Although this is primarily a lesson in drill, the pupils are 
actively using their minds, and are doing more real thinking than 
were the pupils in the first class in geometry considered above. And 
yet geometry is taught largely for its "disciphnary value," and com- 
mercial arithmetic almost exclusively for practical ends. 

After witnessing these two class exercises and contrasting their 
methods and results, the observer finds this query rising in his mind, 
— ^After all, are there any subjects in and of themselves exclusively dis- 
ciplinary, or cultural, or practical? Is there a magical potency in any 
study as such? Do not the teacher and his methods of instruction 
determine the essential values of the various parts of the curriculum? ^ 

In the Conduct of the Class all Unnecessary Work on the 
part of the Pupils should be Eliminated. — Pupils are required 
to do many things that consume a large amount of time and 
which have a minimum of educative value. The chief sources of 
waste of this type are: — 

(a) Fruitless dictation exercises. — Dictation is justified only 
when it is an end in itself, never when it is a means. It can be 
used to advantage in a foreign language when the teacher's aim 
is to establish an association between the spoken work and the 
written symbol. It cannot be defended when its purpose is 
merely to provide the pupil with materials that should be fur- 
nished to him in a more economical way. Much of the material 
that the pupil writes down in class should be given him in the 
form of mimeographic sheets. There are numerous illustrations 
of the waste that comes from dictation. 

In a class in ancient history the teacher spent a large part of each 
hour in dictating word for word to the pupils an outline for the study 
of the next day's assignment. He did not realize that he was using 
twenty minutes each day for something that should at the most not 
have occupied more than five. 

^ For a further discussion of the evils of lesson-hearing see Chapter VIII., 
pp. 168-170. 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 1 39 

In a class in general science the teacher read each day a lecture to 
the pupils, which they were required to write in their note-books as 
a basis for further study. This procedure the teacher justified on 
the ground that there was no adequate text in the course and that he 
wished to furnish the pupils with a definite set of facts, in order that 
the course might be on the same basis as the ordinary text-book 
courses. He further affirmed that there was no little value in having 
the pupils take down in written form oral discourse as a kind of 
training and discipline. If the teacher was convinced that an exact 
wording of the ideas he sought to present was necessary, then he 
should have found means to furnish the pupils with these in written 
form. However, a much better method would have been to give the 
pupils talks and demonstrations, requiring them to assimilaie and 
preserve in written form the most important thoughts. 

In a class in EngHsh the teacher read to the pupils incorrect ex- 
pressions which they were required to copy in their note-books and 
subsequently correct. On the days when this exercise was assigned 
about a third of the entire period was used for the purpose. This 
amounted in the course of a year to a waste of nearly twenty hours. 

(b) Unnecessary copying of questions. — While many teachers 
are not guilty of the gross disregard of time involved in the 
examples cited under the preceding topic, few seem to realize 
that they waste considerable time in the aggregate by requiring 
of their pupils kinds of written work that while not strictly of 
the nature of formal dictation, are essentially time-consuming 
and profitless. In connection with written tests and similar 
exercises it is not infrequently the practice to require the pupils 
to write out each question as well as its answer. When the 
question is definitely and clearly put, there can be no advantage 
to the pupil in having it reduced to a written form. If, however, 
this seems desirable, such questions should be mimeographed 
for the pupils, or wTitten out in advance of the lesson on the 
board. 

In a school in which it is the custom for the teacher to give a five- 
minute written test at the beginning of the period, it was discovered 



I40 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

that in a considerable number of cases three minutes of this time were 
spent in giving out the questions and only two minutes devoted to 
answering them. In other words, this valuable exercise was reduced 
by more than half simply because these teachers did not furnish the 
questions in advance. In another school a teacher of history spent 
several minutes daily in giving out questions to be answered in the 
following day's recitation. Out of fifty recitations recorded by the 
writer an average of three and one-half minutes was lost in require- 
ments similar to these just described. In several instances ten min- 
utes were used for such purposes. 

The following instances illustrate economies in class procedure 
through cutting down unnecessary copying to the minimum: 

In a class in history it was the teacher's custom to begin each class 
period with a brief written quiz. The questions were written on the 
board in advance of the lesson, each question being numbered. The 
pupils in answering the questions, did not copy them, but merely in- 
dicated the numbers. 

In written exercises in geometry in which the construction of figures 
was not important, the teacher provided the pupils with sheets of 
paper on which the figures were hectographed. This work required 
on the part of the teacher but a few minutes for each exercise, but 
it saved during the course of the semester about five hours of the 
pupils' time, according to the instructor's estimate. This time was 
devoted to actual proof of the theorems involved. 

in a class in German the teacher placed the exercises to be trans- 
lated from German to English or vice versa, clearly written and ap- 
propriately spaced, on the board in advance of the recitation. The 
pupils wrote the correct translation underneath. In this way about 
a third of the time formerly spent at the board was saved. 

(c) Profitless requirements in written work. — Not only should 
a pupil be freed from all unnecessary taking of dictation and all 
useless copying of questions, he should be exempt also from all 
profitless forms of written work. There is no merit in requiring a 
pupil to write down a long column of figures in order that he may 
place the correct answer at the bottom. The valuable mental 
process is the addition of the digits, and in this connection the 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 141 

writing of the numbers is of no significance. It is clearly a waste 
of time to reply in written form with an entire sentence when 
one word is all that is needed to convey the thought desired. 
Of course, if the work involves drill in complete English expres- 
sion this is another matter, but when it concerns itself merely 
with the statement of a single fact all additional words are of no 
value. 

This principle is important to keep in mind in conducting rapid 
drill exercises and in giving brief written quizzes and tests. It is de- 
sirable to secure as much drill as possible in a given time, and every- 
thing that is superfluous should be eliminated. It would be a great 
advance in economy to provide every class in algebra, for example, 
with sets of printed exercises in the fundamental operations, and re- 
quire the pupils as rapidly as possible to do the work indicated. The 
saving in the aggregate would be tremendous. Any teacher of this 
subject who can secure mimeographed materials for class use would 
do well to prepare such a series of exercises. 

In brief quizzes it is often possible to construct the questions in the 
form of the completion tests of the psychologists, preparing sufficient 
copies for each member of the class. In these exercises single words 
or groups of words are omitted, and the test consists in supplying 
the right words. Historical facts, such as dates, names of important 
personages, and the location of cities could be brought out in this 
way. Such tests would have two distinct advantages. In the first 
place, as we have already said, they would economize the time of the 
pupil, and in the second place, they would greatly shorten the task 
of the teacher in his work of examination and correction. The chief 
objection to devices of this sort is the difficulty of providing the ma- 
terials; yet the saving in such methods is obviously so great that 
teachers should make a determined effort to obtain these materials. 
At present the fault lies largely with the teachers, who are not alive 
to the problem of the elimination of waste. 

(d) Useless assignments. — In connection with the discussion of 
wastes arising from demanding unnecessary work from the 
pupils the question of useless assignments properly belongs. 



142 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

However, since this is a matter that relates directly to classroom 
methods, extensive consideration of the topic cannot be under- 
taken here. It may be said, however, that many teachers give 
to their pupils the task of looking up materials in connection with 
their work when a large amount of time is consumed in obtaining 
a very small result. In such cases it is far better to tell the pupil 
the fact or principle directly, in order that his time may be more 
profitably employed, unless it is desired to give him practice in 
investigation and research. 

The Physical Condition of the Pupil is an Important 
Consideration from the Standpoint of Economy in Teach- 
ing. — We ordinarily regard the question of the health of the 
pupil as a matter in itself of prime importance. Considered 
alone it is a sufficient end. However, it is also important in 
connection with other matters, among which economy in in- 
struction is not the least. It is a fact so obvious that it needs no 
discussion that the pupil, to work under the best mental condi- 
tions, must be in a satisfactory physical condition. To enter into 
tlie details of the hygiene of the schoolroom, of the course of 
study, and of the pupil is quite beyond the province of this 
present chapter. There are, however, matters that may be 
profitably touched on in passing. Among these are the self- 
evident facts that the pupil must have ordinary sensory acuity, 
that he must be free from disease and weakness, and that he 
must not be worked to the point of excessive fatigue. Of these 
various considerations the last named will be briefly considered 
at this point. 

(a) The problem of mental fatigue in relation to school work. — 
There is no opportunity here to enter into a discussion of the 
nature of fatigue, or to draw a sharp distinction between muscu- 
lar and nervous fatigue. However, it should be pointed out that 
mental fatigue as distinguished from physical is the fatigue that 
arises in connection with mental work, or work primarily mental, 
of which the ordinary school occupations are examples. Further, 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 1 43 

the fact should be emphasized that much of the so-called mental 
fatigue of a school day is not fatigue in the sense of exhaustion 
to such a point that the work cannot be done with reasonable 
rapidity and accuracy. It is in reality distaste for the work, 
ennui, and the increasing desire to do other things that are more 
interesting. 

There is abundant evidence from investigations in the psychology 
of learning that severe mental tasks can be carried on for hours with 
but slight falling off in the output, if only the subject will put forth 
all his attention and energy. Perhaps at the end of six hours of sus- 
tained work in addition his ability has fallen off less than ten per cent. 
It is doubtless the same in school work. The pupil who is really 
eager to do his task, or is determined to carry it through to the 
finish, can work long periods without showing evidences of fatigue. 

Whatever the cause of fatigue, whatever its nature, its pres- 
ence in any form is evidently wasteful. If the pupil does less 
work, and poorer work because he is tired of his task, then he is 
doing this work under relatively unsatisfactory conditions. 
These conditions must be removed if possible. 

(b) The question of the alternation of periods of work and rest. — 
In the industries it has been discovered that the greatest output 
cannot be secured by requiring the operatives to work every 
minute of the day. It is advantageous to have frequent rest 
periods of a few minutes in length, and a few periods of rest of 
longer duration. Doubtless a similar plan would be advan- 
tageous in arranging the school program. While the optimal 
distribution of periods of work and of rest has not been more 
than superficially determined, and then only in individual in- 
stances, it is probably true that the arrangement of the school 
day in many of our high schools is extremely poor when con- 
sidered from the standpoint of the reduction of mental fatigue 
to its lowest possible point. Some schools begin their session at 
half-past eight or nine and continue with only a brief recess until 



144 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

the early hours of the afternoon. When this time schedule is in 
force teachers often report that the pupils seem to be too dull, 
tired, and uninterested in their work to accomplish anything 
worth while in the last school period. Doubtless a much better 
arrangement for the high school program would be to have both 
morning and afternoon sessions with reasonably frequent 
pauses between periods. Some high schools have recognized the 
desirability of this by having a ten-minute intermission between 
every two recitation periods. 

In considering the question of rest periods in the school from 
the point of view of the value of such periods for the industries, it 
is well to remember that there are certain fundamental differ- 
ences between the types of work done in the school and in the 
factoiy. In the first place, the work done in the factory is more 
largely physical than work done in the school. Since physical 
work is more rapidly fatiguing than is mental, periods of rest, 
particularly in the heavier operations, must be more frequent. 
In the second place, factory occupations as a rule have little 
diversity, and hence more quickly become monotonous than do 
those tasks that have a variety of aspects. Doubtless a girl whose 
business consists in folding handkerchiefs according to a uniform 
scheme for eight hours daily can find nothing in the work itself 
that is interesting. On the other hand a pupil who is working at 
an original in geometry may constantly get new points of view 
that keep his mind alert and his attention active. Finally, in 
the shop the task assigned is of such a simple nature that it can 
readily be taken up or dropped without any considerable adapta- 
tion of the attention. In a school task on the other hand it is 
obvious that many subjects demand a considerable time for 
merely getting started and oriented. Under such conditions 
frequent alternation between work and rest would be disad- 
vantageous. 

This may be made evident by an example. The girl who is folding 
handkerchiefs according to a method in which she is habituated can 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM I45 

perhaps profitably pause for two minutes out of ten. She can drop 
her work instantly and go back to it with practically no loss in atten- 
tion. On the other hand a pupil who is working on a composition in 
English would find such an arrangement of work and rest periods de- 
cidedly to his disadvantage. He would just get into the swing of 
his work when he would be compelled to drop it. In school work the 
simple drill exercises approach most nearly the type of work done in 
many factories and shops. In such exercises there can profitably be 
frequent periods of rest. In the high school it is safe to say that no 
drill exercises should be carried on without a break for a period of 
over thirty minutes. There seems to be some evidence for this asser- 
tion not only from the findings of experience but also from those of 
educational psychology. ^ Therefore, few class periods should be 
devoted entirely to simple drill exercises. 

Some of the conclusions that may reasonably be drawn from 
the above considerations are: — In a high school session contain- 
ing six or seven periods of recitation and study, there should be 
at least one long recess period, together with two or three shorter 
rest periods. Perhaps these latter should be slightly increased in 
length as the day advances. In class exercises there should be 
sufficient variety in the work to relieve the monotony that is one 
of the chief causes of fatigue in some of the industrial occupa- 
tions. When the class work is of the nature of drill, rest and 
change should come more frequently than when the work is less 
mechanical and in itself has more varied elements. 

The Mental Attitude of the Worker has much to do with 
his Efficiency. — Investigators and workers in the field of " scien- 
tific management" in the industries have invariably found that 
no plan of w^aste-elimination is productive of results unless the 
attitude of the w^orkman is satisfactory. The employee who has 
no '^appetite for his job," whose sole interest is merely in ''get- 
ting by" with as little effort as possible, who takes pride in 

^ See W. H. Pyle, Economical learning, Jour, of Ed. Psychol., Vol. IV., 
pp. 148-158 (1913)- 



146 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

shirking when he can escape detection, who watches the clock 
more than he does his machine, will do a low grade of work under 
any system of management. Further, the workman who is 
worried, discouraged, or at odds with the foreman, is seldom 
efl&cient. For these reasons wise industrial managers have paid 
more attention to plans for making the workman's attitude 
toward his work energetic, eager, and cheerful than they have 
to methods of accounting, to schemes for systematizing supplies, 
stores, and tools, to devices for the proper routing of materials 
and the assembly of finished parts, and to details of correct 
workmanship. Clearly it is as essential for the pupil to have a 
proper attitude toward his task as it is for the employee in an 
industrial establishment. 

(a) The problem of the child's attitude toward his work is not 
merely a question of efficiency; it is likewise a matter that concerns 
mental hygiene. — ^Attitudes that make work more efficient, that 
benefit behavior may be considered as essentially healthful, 
those that injure behavior, that make it uncertain, irregular, and 
lower its value are as truly unhygienic as are those physical 
conditions that lower the efficiency of the body. Some of the 
attitudes that are obviously unhygienic are worry, fear, dis- 
couragement, lack of self-confidence, and all forms of excessive 
excitement and undue depression. Obviously there is tremen- 
dous waste in all work done under such conditions, and the 
teacher must do all in his power to eliminate them, not only 
for the sake of the work, but also for the mental health of 
the pupil. 

(b) Dissatisfaction in the task is a serious menace to all efficient 
workmanship. — This attitude is unfortunately extremely com- 
mon in school work, but it is one difficult to describe accurately, 
and still more difficult to eliminate. The dissatisfaction is often 
due to the fact that the learner sees no significance in his task. It 
means nothing to him, either in itself or in its consequences. 
The healthful attitude of mind is to undertake one's work with 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 147 

cheerfulness and zest, but this attitude cannot be present when 
the work is distasteful either in its immediate performance or 
in its results. In order that school tasks be performed without 
tremendous wastes, the teacher must in some way make the 
work seem worth while either in itself or in its relations to some- 
thing else that appeals as distinctly worth while. 

One of the greatest problems in education today is to make it 
appear valuable to those pursuing it. This applies to every stage of 
education from the primary grades of the elementary school through 
the college and university. This need is less in evidence in vocational 
and technical education than elsewhere, but it exists here. The college 
youth often seems to look upon the "general" and "cultural" courses 
in the curriculum as little short of a joke. "Student activities," so- 
called, are seldom studious activities; they are not scholarly or in- 
tellectual. The vast majority of youths who are pursuing academic 
education see little relationship between it and life. This attitude 
is surely abnormal. Often, perhaps always, the doing of something 
with no genuine purpose is worse than doing nothing at all. It surely 
is worse than doing anything that appeals to the learner from the 
positive standpoint. In earlier times this belief in the lack of a genuine 
value in a college education resulted in all sorts of irresponsible and 
even vicious forms of behavior among college students. Fortunately 
today athletics and social functions provide something that is seem- 
ingly worth while, and they are doubtless important factors in con- 
tributing to the sanity of college men and women. No one interested 
in education, however, can but regret the fact that often poise and 
intellectual soundness are not secured through college studies them- 
selves, but rather through outside activities. 

Similar conditions confront the pupil in the high school. In so 
far as the work lacks purpose for him, in so far as he thinks of it as a 
mere formal exercise, an unhealthy attitude of mind is created toward 
his work, except in those rare instances when the work is in and of 
itself pleasurable and is performed in the spirit of play. As a rule the 
desire of activity for activity's sake is woefully insufficient, especially 
when the pupil has reached the age when adult life-interests begin to 
develop. 



148 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(c) There are various motives that may vitalize school work. — 
Some of these have already been discussed in some detail, and 
others will be amplified later. ^ They will be but briefly referred 
to here. We have pointed out the fact that the vocational 
motive is compelling. ( Further, many pupils find a strong incen- 
tive in their desire to obtain high marks or other evidences of 
school achievement. However, marks are often ineffectual, and 
are always in danger of being over emphasized especially when 
the spirit of rivalry is excessively developed. There is, neverthe- 
less, a means by which the school work can be made significant 
to most pupils and one that fortunately possesses no inherent 
dangers and is seldom carried to an extreme. This has been re- 
ferred to at various times in our discussions, as the social, or 
cooperative motive in class work. Several examples have been 
given on previous pages.^ One further will suffice here. 

The writer recalls a fifth grade class in which the mental attitude 
of the pupils was thoroughly sound and healthful, and in which as a 
result the work was unusually good. To a great extent this attitude 
was secured because the teacher made it her aim to develop on the 
part of the pupils a spirit of cooperation in each and every lesson. 
It was her custom to send certain children to the pubUc library to 
select books that were suitable for the class to use as collateral read- 
ing in American history. These pupils not only selected the books, 
but they told the class the reasons for their choice, and the most 
important points in the books as they related to class work. Other 
pupils brought to the school post-cards and magazine clippings for 
exhibition when the class was discussing foreign travel in connection 
with geography, or with daily happenings in their study of current 
events. Some of the children prepared questions in their various 
lessons to ask others. Some were sent to the board to do exercises 
in number work, and others went as critics and teachers, who watched 
for the mistakes of their mates and pointed them out and corrected 
them. Indeed, all of the class in some way, according to the individual 

1 See Chapter II., pp. 27, 28; Chapter IV., p. 72 f. 

2 See particularly Chapter II., p. 28. 



ELIMINATING WASTE IN THE CLASSROOM 149 

ability of its members, were encouraged to do something to add to 
the lesson. The class was always eager and attentive. It could 
literally run itself with the teacher out of the room for a period of 
half an hour. The reason why the high degree of cooperation was 
possible was due to two facts. The teacher had studied the individual 
ability and interests of each pupil, and had found something that 
every member could do, and she had so mechanized the routine of the 
classroom that attention could be given to more important matters. 

The method of attacking the school work which makes the 
pupil a contributor as well as a learner is one of the chief means 
by which the value of school tasks may be made to appear 
significant to the pupil. It is certain at least that unless this or 
some other method is devised for securing a proper attitude 
toward school occupations, work in all grades is destined to 
prove a sorry failure; and even worse than the failure of the 
work itself is the failure of the pupil to find anything worth while 
in his school activities. This can result only in a most unsound 
and dangerous mental attitude that is likely to be carried from 
the schoolroom into life itself, and which is sure to entail most 
serious consequences. 

Methods of Instruction and of Learning may be Classified 
as Economical or Wasteful. — In comparing conditions in the 
school with those in the industries we find that there is a close 
resemblance in the question of waste-elimination not only from 
the standpoint of the physical conditions of the working place, 
the physical condition of the worker, and his attitude toward his 
work, but also from the point of view of the actual processes 
involved in doing the work. The pupil may have wasteful 
methods of learning, just as the workman has wasteful methods 
of doing his task; the teacher may have wasteful methods of 
instruction, just as the foreman and the boss have wasteful 
methods of supervision and direction. In the shop and the 
factory the problem of efficiency is in this respect, as we have 
previously seen, the problem of the elimination of wasteful 



150 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

motions, primarily physical, and secondarily mental; in the 
classroom and study-hall the corresponding problem is likewise 
the elimination of wasteful motions, primarily mental, and 
secondarily physical. The consideration of this problem in 
relation to the schools might well be discussed here. However, 
in succeeding chapters on methods of instruction and on the 
economy of study it will be considered in detail. At the present 
we shall briefly mention some of the greatest sources of waste 
that arise from faulty methods of instruction. 

Chief among these are un conomical methods of testing the 
knowledge of the pupil, roundabout and unpsychological meth- 
ods of drill, wasteful and unskilful methods of questioning, 
vague statements on the part of the teacher and the pupils, and 
often a total lack of any adequate lesson plan. These sources of 
waste together with others that primarily relate to methods of 
instruction will be treated under separate topics in later parts of 
this book. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD. — TESTING THE KNOWLEDGE 

OF THE PUPIL 

The Three Fundamental Methods of Class Instruction. — 

There are three main methods of class instruction, namely, — to 
/ test the knowledge of the pupil and measure his progress in acts 
of skillf to drill and perfect the pupil in knowledge and skill that 
he has partly acquired," and to add to the knowledge and tech- 
nical ability that he already possesses. Each of these three 
methods involves definite means for their attainment, and the 
entire problem of instruction in the high school may be definitely 
related to them. In so far as these methods are adequately and 
economically realized, instruction is a success; in so far as they 
are realized inadequately and by wasteful and incorrect means, 
instruction is a failure. 

Reasons for Testing the Elnowledge of the Pupil. — There 
are various reasons why it is necessary to test the knowledge of 
the pupil in class exercises. The most important are the follow- 
ing:— 

(a) The test for knowledge holds the pupil down to his tasks. — 
It would be impossible to obtain any result from high school 
courses if the pupils were not compelled to show the teacher 
from time to time what their achievement is. Indeed, this is a 
compelling motive not only among high school pupils but among 
all classes of learners as well. It is generally true that advanced 
students who take courses not for credit, and who do not submit 
themselves to the required tests of proficiency, get comparatively 
little out of these courses. If this condition holds good among 
adults who bring a genuine interest to their tasks, how much 

151 



152 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

more true is it among boys and girls in the high school, who often 
have little interest in the courses as such, and no adequate con- 
ception of their value. 

(b) The test for knowledge enables the teacher to determine the 
progress of the pupil. — The test for knowledge should reveal to 
the teacher the "content of his pupils' minds." It should show 
him how well the learner has mastered the essential facts, has 
comprehended the fundamental principles, and has acquired the 
requisite facility and skill. Unless the teacher can definitely 
know these things, he cannot adequately instruct his class as a 
group or as individuals. These tests as a rule should include 
more than the ordinary questions and quizzes that concern the 
day's recitation; they should aim to discover the general com- 
prehension and skill of the pupil. In courses in foreign language, 
for example, there should be tests to measure the pupil's ability 
to translate at sight or with the aid of the dictionary; in courses 
in geometry, there should be tests to determine the pupil's 
facility in solving original propositions; in courses in literature 
and history, there should be some means of testing the pupil's 
range of information, and historical and literary appreciation. 
In fact in all subjects there should be "examinations for 
power." 

It is likewise important that these tests should seek to dis- 
cover the direction and the nature of the pupil's errors. Fre- 
quently the teacher knows that a pupil is not doing good work, 
but does not know the reason for his failure. Often the difficulty 
lies in the fact that the pupil employs some wrong process or has 
some misleading notion that prevents him from making progress. 
Studies in the psychology of learning frequently show that after 
weeks or months of initial advance most learners reach a point 
at which further progress stops for a time. These periods of 
slight improvement or total lack of improvement are called 
"plateaus" in the learning curve. There is, doubtless, a variety 
of causes for these plateaus, but in many instances they can be 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 53 

traced to erroneous methods of doing work, to lack of under- 
standing in regard to some fundamental fact or principle. The 
teacher should frame his tests to discover if possible why the 
pupil fails to make progress. 

A teacher of algebra reports decided improvement in the work 
done by his class as a whole as well as by individuals since he began 
the practice of observing and recording carefully the kinds of mistakes 
that his pupils make in their written tests. He says, — "At first, this 
involved a large amount of extra work on my part, since I was obliged 
to read the papers much more carefully than when I read them merely 
for the purpose of assigning a mark, and since I was compelled to 
work out a method of recording against each individual the kinds of 
errors he made. However, after a time I gained such facility in know- 
ing just where to direct my attention in reading these papers, and in 
recording the results that today I read these tests as rapidly as I 
did before I adopted my present method. The results, as far as they 
relate to better instruction on my part and to improvement in the 
work done by the class, are decided. Under the old method I worked 
more or less in the dark, though at the time I did not realize it. I 
did not know, for example, that many of my pupils were making no 
progress because they had not mastered such fundamental processes 
as the changing of the signs of quantities on removing a parenthesis 
when it is preceded by a minus sign. Of course in a vague way I 
sensed such facts, but I had to 'get down to cases' to have them 
properly emphasized. Now I know just where the weakness of each 
pupil lies, and where the class as a whole is having difficulty. As a 
result, I no longer make the mistake of spending time in the class to 
take up errors that but a few pupils make, or errors that are made 
occasionally. When individual pupils are at fault, I work with them 
separately; when the difficulty concerns a large number in the class, 
I try to clear it up during the recitation period. I have been amply 
repaid for the time and effort I have put into this matter." 

A teacher of history has kept for some time a record of the mis- 
takes made by pupils during the recitation. To accomplish this he 
has devised a classified table under which the common mistakes 
naturally fall, and without taking his attention from the recitation 



154 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

he is able to check off these mistakes in connection with the individual 
pupils. Among the interesting facts that he has discovered in this 
way, facts that he never even suspected before, is that pupils tend to 
make the same general type of errors day after day. There are some, 
for example, whose difficulty obviously lies in the fact that they get 
parts of expressions from the text without clearly understanding their 
significance, and commit these imperfectly to memory. They con- 
stantly use this method of studying their lessons, and as a result 
make no real progress in their work. There are some pupils who have 
the habit of transposing the figures in a date, others who have a 
rapidly fading memory, others who can recall specific details, but who 
cannot retain generaHties or abstractions, and so on throughout a 
somewhat long list. The knowledge that the teacher has acquired 
in the course of keeping this record he finds of considerable practical 
advantage in his teaching, and also of no small interest as a study in 
individual psychology. He feels that he has been repaid in every way 
for the additional time he has taken to devise and keep this record. 

A teacher of English uses a box made up of several parts. Each 
part is devoted to some fundamental error that he finds in his pupils' 
compositions. When he has examined the written work of a pupil 
he places the pupil's name in the compartments that relate to the 
errors found. From time to time he takes the names out of the box 
and makes a permanent record of the difficulties that the various 
pupils have made, and the frequency with which they occur. As 
the work progresses, the teacher changes the kind of errors that he 
is observing, as he emphasizes now one aspect of the subject, now 
another. 

(c) The test for knowledge serves as a means for review. — 
Not the least important of the functions of the test for 
knowledge as a classroom exercise is that it serves as a 
method of review. When quizzes and examinations are 
employed with this purpose in mind the following considera- 
tions are important: 

A well-organized review lesson should emphasize the more essen- 
tial points and disregard exceptions and minor details. — It is 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 55 

obviously impossible for pupils to keep in mind all of the mate- 
rials found in text-books or presented in class discussion. The 
test for knowledge as a review lesson should be a means of em- 
phasizing the most important phases of the work and properly 
organizing it. 

Review lessons should be carefully distributed according to a 
definite plan. — There is no fact more clearly demonstrated in the 
psychology of learning than that it is extremely essential to recall 
materials to be remembered not once, but over a considerable 
period of time. If it is possible to give an hour to the review of 
certain parts of the class work during a term, it yields much 
better results when this review is extended over several lessons 
than when it is concentrated in a single lesson at the end of the 
term. For this reason short quizzes frequently given are likely 
to be more satisfactory than occasional, long, and formal tests. 
While there is some advantage in giving set examinations, these 
should not be the only means of holding the pupil down to his 
work and testing his knowledge. 

Reviews shoidd be based on those details of subject-matter on 
which the pupils are known to be weak. — In making out written 
quizzes for the purpose of review exercises, the teacher should 
arrange his questions in such a way as to make emphatic those 
details of the work with which the class is finding difficulty. In 
this way he can make the pupils aware of their deficiences, and 
give them an incentive for removing them. 

(d) The test for knowledge serves as a basis for marking the 
pupil. — In any school system, marks to indicate the attainment 
of the pupils are necessary. Marks serve three distinct purposes. 
In the first place, they are essential in the administration of the 
school. They serve as a basis for the promotion of individuals 
from grade to grade, class to class, and subject to subject. They 
further indicate to superintendents, principals, and other super- 
vising authorities certain important facts in regard to the 
efficiency of methods of instruction, the ability of teachers, and 



156 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

the attainments of groups of pupils. ^ In recent years they have be- 
come a very important element in an adequate "school survey." 

In the second place, marks, if properly kept, give the teacher 
a permanent record for estimating the progress and ability of 
individual pupils, and for comparing the attainment of indi- 
viduals and classes from year to year. This function of marks is 
important, but unfortunately most teachers do not sufl&ciently 
study their records with this thought in view. Further, marks 
in the form of proper school records should prove of value not 
only to the teacher who records them, but to all other teachers 
in the school system. It would be well if every teacher in the 
high school could study the scholastic records of the members of 
each new class that comes under his instruction. Again, in so far 
as the school seeks to determine particular aptitudes and general 
abilities of individual pupils, marks should be of no small assist- 
ance.^ They should be entered on record cards and filed in such 
a way that they can be used by all who are concerned with them. 
• In the third place, as has been previously pointed out,^ marks 
serve as incentives to pupils in their school work. They are 
objective indications of attainment. The pupil who is ambitious, 
who cares to excel, finds an immediate objective for his work in 
the grades that he receives. 

The Necessity of a Properly Devised and Administered 
Marking System. — In recent years there has been a revolt 

1 In drawing conclusions from studying pupils' grades the investigator 
should make sure that these marks are derived from questions of the same 
relative degree of difl&culty. 

2 It seems probable that in the near future one of the important functions 
of the high school, particularly of the "junior high school" will be that of 
vocational guidance. It will be the business of teachers and supervising 
officials to discover in advance what sort of career this boy and this girl are 
best suited by nature and training to enter upon. A carefully devised and 
faithfully recorded set of marks will be an important factor in determining 
the life occupations of these young people. 

3 Chapter IV., p. 75. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 57 

against much of the barren formalism that characterized many 
of the phases of education a generation ago, and in this revolt 
there has been harsh, and at times a just criticism of the '' mark- 
ing system" as it has been termed. There have been many 
critics, and few defenders. The obvious defects in marking 
have been so numerous, and so readily pointed out, that until 
recently the critics have had it very much their own way. 

It has been urged, for example, that marks are arbitrary, and not 
real measures of attainment; that it is impossible to give accurate 
marks; that at best they are mere guesses by individuals, as shown by 
the fact that teachers when put to the test of marking certain definite 
forms of school work show no consistency of judgment; that they cul- 
tivate an unwholesome attitude on the part of the pupils toward 
their work; that they encourage undesirable competition among 
pupils; that they emphasize extrinsic rather than intrinsic interests 
in the subjects of the curriculum; that they cause the pupil unneces- 
sary worry, and that consequently marking may lead to serious con- 
sequences, particularly in the case of ambitious pupils with nervous 
temperaments. 

It should be noted, that the criticisms directed against mark- 
ing, are not so much criticisms against marking as such as against 
. improper methods of marking. In reality there has never been a 
marking system, but rather a marking practice that has been 
anything but systematic. It has grown up by chance rather 
than because of any foresight on the part of those who devised 
it, or who administer it. If we are willing to admit that marks 
in and of themselves are not an evil, but possess a positive value, , 
and from this conclusion there seems no possibility of escape, 
then it is extremely important that our methods of marking shall 
be the best possible. That our present methods are entirely 
inadequate and unsatisfactory no one who knows the facts can 
doubt, but their inadequacy cannot be remedied by reducing 
marks to a minimum, by making them less exact and more 
fragmentary than they are at present, but by extending present 



158 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

methods in the direction of greater exactness and completeness, 
and by devising new and more significant methods. There are 
certain obvious reforms that should be made in the marking 
system if it is to serve as a satisfactory incentive and measure of 
school achievement. 

(a) In the first place we must find, if possible, for most school 
subjects an objective scale by whi h the attainment of the pupil can 
be measured both absolutely and relatively. — We must have def- 
inite grades of excellence from zero to a hundred and we must be 
able to place with tolerable accuracy any sample of school work 
in a given subject somewhere on this scale. Then a pupil, when 
he is given a grade of 40, 65, or 80, for example, will know just 
where he is in terms of his own progress and in terms of his 
relation to others who have secured higher or lower marks. 

Many have doubted that such an objective scale is possible in 
any genuine sense. They have affirmed that intellectual attainment 
is in terms of mind and that mind cannot be measured. As to this 
objection, it may be pointed out that none of the scales so far devised 
for measuring school achievement seeks to measure a mental state 
as such; they measure results, they evaluate the objective achieve- 
ment of the pupil, not a subtle, hidden something. The fact that an 
objective scale is possible in measuring school achievements has been 
clearly demonstrated by the Courtis tests in arithmetic, which have 
already proved of the greatest value to teachers and administrative 
ofl&cers. In a less measure the handwriting scales devised by Thorn- 
dike and Ayres have demonstrated their value. Scales in spelling, 
English composition, reading, algebra, and various other subjects 
have been worked out, or are in the process of being constructed. 
Some of these are still crude, but any one that is carefully devised 
by a competent investigator is sure to be better than no scale at all. 
The attempt to secure objective standards as a test of individual and 
group attainment is one of the most important fields of activity of 
the new experimental education. 

(b) It is not only important to devise carefully determined ob- 
jective scales for marking pupils; it is likewise necessary that the 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 59 

teacher use such scales as conscieniiously as possible. — At present 
many teachers, particularly those of high school grade, look 
upon marking as a necessary evil. They often mark in a per- 
functory, and in a careless way. They consider marking a 
burden, and they slight this part of their school duties as much 
as possible. When a teacher does not consider it a part of his 
function to mark carefully and intelligently, the pupils under him 
soon discover the fact, and the whole situation reacts unfavora- 
bly for them. On the other hand, if pupils believe that their 
marks fairly represent their attainment they are sure to have 
a better attitude toward their work. Further, it should be kept 
in mind that if a pupil is kept in ignorance in regard to his real / 
achievement, if he is not marked in such a way that he knows \ / 
when he has failed and why he has failed, he is likely to stumble 
along in the dark, making no progress because he has no idea 
in what direction progress lies, and no knowledge whether he is 
advancing or falling back. 

It is the custom of some teachers who have a large amount of writ- 
ten work to correct to do much of this in a perfunctory manner, with 
the result that the pupil has no conception of how he is progressing 
in this part of his school tasks. For example, a teacher of English 
composition in a large city high school makes it a practice to throw 
into the waste-paper basket the majority of the brief themes of his 
pupils, taking up a few at haphazard for comment and correction in 
the class. As a result, it is doubtful if this work in composition is of 
any material value to the pupils. It is a well-established principle 
of educational psychology that practice without knowledge of results 
is of little value. In contrast to this practice is that of a second Eng- 
Hsh teacher who has in recent years cut down his requirements in 
writing by one half. He finds time at present to read carefully all of 
the compositions handed in to him, and to mark these in such a way 
that the pupils understand their errors. These errors are corrected 
by the pupils making them, and the compositions again submitted 
to the teacher. He is of the opinion that the revision of his former 
procedure has improved the quality of the written work of his pupils. 



l6o INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

To test out the effect of such a procedure, a teacher of high school 
English, who was a student in the seminary of experimental educa- 
tion at Brown University, devised and conducted an experiment the 
results of which have not as yet been published. He divided a class 
in Enghsh into two sections of approximately equal abiUty as deter- 
mined by previous tests. To one of these sections he gave ten minutes 
of practice in writing daily for half a year. The other section was 
not given this practice. The results of this daily practice were in no 
way marked or criticised. At the end of the practice, which amounted 
in all to approximately fifteen hours, the two sections were carefully 
tested again in regard to their ability in composition, and it was found 
that the section that had not received the daily practice showed 
sHghtly greater improvement than the section that had been given 
the drill distributed over fifteen hours, an amount which under or- 
dinary conditions should have resulted in improvement. 

(c) Every teacher in the high school should, jayniliarize himself 
with such scales as exist for measuring achievement in the subject 
which he teaches and should use these scales; when no such scales 
have been devised, the t acher should attempt to set up measures of 
his own that are as objective as possible. — Scales for the measure- 
ment of achievement in high school subjects, even if inadequate, 
are better than no objective measures at all. The teacher should 
familiarize himself with and use such measures of attainment in 
English composition, as the Hillegas scale, or the Harvard^, 
Newton scale. ^ When no objective measure has been devised, 
or when those which have been perfected are obviously in- 
adequate for the purpose at hand, then the teacher should at- 
tempt to form some measure of his own that is more than his 
individual judgment. He could at least keep on file composi- 
tions that are representative of the work of his pupils, ranging 
from barely passing, poor, through medium, and good, to ex- 
cellent and superior; and compare the written work of subse- 

^ This latter scale is devised to measure the attainment of pupils in the 
eighth grade of the elementary school, but may be used with first year high 
school pupils. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD l6l 

quent pupils with these. He could use a similar scheme for 
written work in mathematics, language, stenography, and the 
like. In the manual arts, he could have standard models for 
various types of achievement and so on. Never mind how im- 
perfect such scales are, they are more likely to serve as a basis 
for a valid estimate of the pupils' work than are judgments 
based on passing impressions. 

Teachers are aided in making their marking definite and objective 
by analyzing as far as possible the elements that enter into any 
complex achievement and assigning definite values to such elements. 
For example, in judging the merit of a theme in English it is not suf- 
ficient to mark it on the basis of general impressions, but on certain 
points, such as spelling, punctuation, grammatical correctness, sen- 
tence and paragraph structure, clearness of arrangement, and inven- 
tive ability. Further, the pupils should be acquainted with the 
method of marking, and from time to time different weight may be 
given to these various elements, as the teacher emphasizes now one 
aspect of the work and now another. Teachers, also, should have 
different standards of attainment for different grades and classes, 
not expecting the same performance from a pupil in the seventh, 
eighth, or ninth grades as in the higher grades of the secondary school. 
In this way, one of the chief deficiencies of many of the scales that 
have been devised for testing the ability of pupils will be done away 
with. Such tests as the Hillegas scale in English composition, for 
example, are based on general estimates of merit. This gives no 
indication in regard to particular merits or defects, and it is not de- 
vised to measure ability at any particular stage of advancement, but 
rather excellence in English composition in general. A point scale, 
that assigns definite values to different elements, and takes into con- 
sideration the age and grade of the pupil can be more definitely ap- 
plied and used specifically to improve the work of the pupil just 
where improvement is most needed. In this respect the Harvard- 
Newton scale is superior to the Hillegas scale. 

The Outcomes of Standardized Marking have great 
Educational Value. — When we have valid scales for marking 



l62 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

various high school subjects, and when teachers are as interested 
in properly grading each pupil as in imparting facts or stimulat- 
ing enthusiasm, results of no small value to the pupil will be 
achieved, and marks will be valued more, for the simple reason 
"that they will mean more to both pupil and teacher. Under 
such a system the pupil will have an incentive for beating his 
own record, because he can understand definitely just what 
progress he is making according to concrete and carefully graded 
standards. He can also be assured that if he does reasonably 
good work', as good as pupils in previous years have done or are 
doing in other classes, he will pass the course. A relative mark- 
ing system does not insure this. Some instructors consider it 
their duty to fail a certain proportion of their class. They think 
that they are lax if too large a proportion of their pupils receive a 
passing grade. Pupils should not be graded in this comparative 
way. It would be impossible to do so if we had an absolute scale 
of measurements. 

When an objective scheme of marking has been finally 
achieved, unfairness, or the suspicion of unfairness in the mark- 
ing of a pupil, will be a thing of the past. What is more, the 
well-intentioned teacher, and practically all teachers have good 
intentions in marking, will know whether he has marked accu- 
rately or not; still better he will be able to show the pupil why a 
mark that has been given is justified. One of the most unpleas- 
ant features of the present inexact scheme of marking arises 
from the fact that it is very difficult to point out to the pupil just 
why a certain grade has been assigned to him rather than another. 

If the pupils of a class were told to draw from memory a line 
three inches long, and were further informed that a line of less than 
two inches or more than four was to be considered of zero merit, and 
that a line of exactly three inches was to be marked as perfect, or 
one hundred per cent, correct; while lines between were to be 
graded up to a hundred, each hundredth of an inch from two inches 
up to three and from four inches down to three counting as one point 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 63 

on the scale, each pupil could be graded in absolute accuracy in 
terms of his performance. There would then be no question as to 
where any pupil belonged on the scale, and he could be shown at once 
that he had been assigned the correct position. Further than this 
the teacher's personal equation would be entirely eliminated. 

Such a condition of affairs would react greatly to the advan- 
tage of the pupil. He would be stimulated to do better work, 
when he knew that his poor work had been really measured and 
determined. Misunderstandings between pupils and teachers 
would to a great extent be eliminated. ^'Easy teachers" and 
*'snap courses" would be largely a t|iing of the past. In this 
way the entire esprit de corps of the school would be raised and 
studying for marks would be the perfectly natural and justifiable 
thing to do. 

Standards of Marking Cannot all be Framed with Equal 
Exactness and Objectivity. — In our previous discussion of the 
desirability of securing objective measures for school achieve- 
ments, we have emphasized the importance of devising scales 
that are as exact and minute as possible, in order that every 
kind and degree of achievement may be definitely measured and 
determined. Although this is true of all school subjects, and 
of all varieties of accomplishment, still the fact should be kept 
in mind that there are certain very desirable results that cannot 
be measured in more than a very rough way, and that further 
there are varying kinds of attainment that must be measured 
from varying standpoints. Obviously it is easier to form a scale 
for determining ability in algebra than in history; a more simple 
matter to measure excellence in English composition than in 
literary interpretation. Like\\dse we do not wish to measure 
merely the amount and quality of work done; at times it is 
equally desirable to measure the progress made, or the interest 
shown. Progress made is often a better criterion of excellence 
than the correctness of the result, in and of itself considered. 
There should be a place in our marking system to record this 



164 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

important fact. If we have well-devised scales, it is a simple 
matter to measure and record improvement in school work. 
It is a much more difficult matter to measure interest, and it will 
doubtless be a long time before we have more than the roughest 
scales for such a determination. Interest, however, can be 
determined indirectly by the amount attempted, and the re- 
sult obtained. 

The teacher should not fall into the error of doing away with 
all attempts at objective standards because in some instances 
they are crude and difficult to secure. He should not consider it a 
merit, as he sometimes does, that he has no rule by which to 
measure results; he should not pose as the inspired one, the true 
bearer of the torch of learning, the leader and prophet to whom 
it is given to see the promised land from the mountain tops, the 
exponent of the spirit that cannot be reduced to definite form, 
although it can be felt and in a sense comprehended. It is easy 
to appeal to the spirit, to declare that insight and inspiration are 
the great things and to denounce all that partakes of exactness 
and rigor. It should be remembered always that the real leader 
must know where he is leading others, that enthusiasm and 
inspiration are worth nothing unless they are directed toward 
things worth while. The teacher above all persons must know 
the way along which he seeks to direct others. This means he 
must have objectives, ends as definite and as clear as they can 
possibly be made. 

The question of the desirability of definite measures of achievement 
is most clearly emphasized when we consider the teaching of the 
so-called appreciative subjects, such as art, literature, and certain 
aspects of history, science, and the manual arts. The appreciative 
subjects are carefully distinguished by some from those subjects 
that are primarily of the knowledge-acquiring and habit-forming type. 
Snedden ^ has expressed the distinction that he would make between 

^ David Snedden, An address delivered before the Department of Superin- 
tendents of the National Educational Association, Detroit, Feb. 23, 1916. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 65 

these two types of studies as follows: "In teaching spelling, the out- 
come expected on the part of the pupil is a certain quite definite and 
easily recognized ability to do, to execute, to express in action. On 
the other hand the learning achieved in hearing a recital or witness- 
ing a dramatic performance can be subjected to no proJ6table test 
of expression, of doing. We expect absorption, assimilation, growth, 
as results, but the final outcome is so remote from the original stimulus 
that we do not, ordinarily, seek to trace connections." It is not 
denied that studies of the appreciative type have results; we simply 
do not know what the results are, and consequently we must trust to 
chance as to what is likely to happen. We must "expose the pupil to 
the influences of such studies," trusting that the exposure will "take," 
and that the results will be beneficial to the learner. It is easy to 
measure progress in algebra, or Latin. On the other hand, who shall 
evaluate the results that come to the pupil in his reading of the An- 
cient Mariner or of Treasure Island? Here the learner must go 
his own way without let or hindrance. To hedge appreciation about 
by rules, to measure it or to direct it, is to kill it. It flourishes only 
in the spirit of pure play. 

Such is Snedden's contention in the main. It is not difficult 
to sympathize with this point of view; yet we must remember 
the important fact that undirected and undetermined interest 
never gets us anywhere. Enthusiasms that have no goal, spon- 
taneity that is uncontrolled, are as likely to go wrong as right. 
Appreciation is not a matter of personal whim; it cannot be left en- 
tirely to chance and individual preference. If our teaching is to have 
any definiteness and point, the outcomes of those studies that em- 
phasize the appreciative functions must be measured and their main 
aims determined. If they are left entirely to chance, they cannot be 
taught and are no concern of the school in any grade of instruction. 

Important Considerations in Regard to the Test for 
Knowledge. — Tests for knowledge may take various forms ac- 
cording to the purpose for which they are employed. Under 
this head the most important considerations are the following: — 

(a) The test for knowledge as a rule should be given as a class 
exercise. — It would be an obvious saving of time for instruction 



1 66 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

if tests for knowledge could be given chiefly outside of the 
recitation period. This, however, is impracticable because of the 
fact that little value can be attached to the written work pre- 
pared outside of the class. ^ Some teachers regard exercises in 
the various high school subjects that are done at home and 
handed in as practically worthless, as far as they indicate any 
real knowledge or ability on the part of those who submit them. 
In many instances these exercises are not the work of those whose 
names they bear. Often unwise parents do most of the work for 
their children, quite generally the less industrious and capable 
pupils receive assistance from the few who are willing to work 
and who have the ability to do accurate work. For these reasons 
it is a common practice for teachers merely to record the fact 
that the pupils have handed in the required work or not, but to 
give no further credit for school exercises of this character.^ 

The writer recently visited a class in physics in which all of the 
pupils handed in all of the problems of the day's lesson correctly 
done. The teacher sent a number of the class to the board to do these 
problems without the assistance of their papers. There were several 
of these problems that not a single member of the class could do cor- 
rectly when they were tested under the eye of the teacher. In a second 
class, in French, many of the pupils handed in composition work 
correctly done, but were unable to explain the grammatical principles 
involved in their writing. These two examples are instances taken at 
random from hundreds that might be cited to show how futile is 
much of the written work done outside of the classroom. 

(b) The written test is generally more economical than the oral 
test. — ^As far as practical, tests for knowledge should be written 
rather than oral. The reason for this is that in the written test 
all of the pupils are mentally active during the entire period of 

^ As will be pointed out in Chapter XVII., the supervised study period will 
partly solve this difficulty. 

2 See also in this connection Chapter V., p. loo and Chapter XVII., p. 363. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 67 

the test, while in the oral test only one pupil is necessarily en- 
gaged at a given time. Further than this, by use of the written 
quiz the teacher can test the knowledge and the skill of all of the 
members of his class much more extensively than he can by the 
oral test. There are various reasons why the oral test is used 
more frequently than the written test in class work. One rea- 
son is that in the oral test the teacher can check up the 
errors of individuals on the spot, while in the written test 
correcting of papers outside of the class period is involved. 
Again in the oral test the whole assignment can be covered, 
while in the written test this is difficult, and teachers feel that 
they must go over the entire lesson in the class period. 

However, the written test can be used in many ways with a 
great saving. Compare the value of sending individual pupils to 
the board to write out and demonstrate orally proofs in geometry 
with that of having all of the class write out at their seats all of 
the advanced propositions. In the former case, as a rule, but 
one pupil is giving concentrated attention to the proposition 
that is being worked out at the board: in the latter instance, all 
of the members of the class are mentally active on all of the 
work done. If too much time is taken from other phases of the 
class work by the written exercises done by the pupils at their 
seats, then only a part of the advanced lesson may be thus 
treated. Clearly it is more desirable for all of the pupils to give 
their entire attention to half of the work, than for all of the class 
to give sporadic attention to all of the work, which usually is the 
case when work on the board is presented by individual pupils, or 
when the pupil recites from his seat.^ 

What is true of the work in geometry is equally true of the 
work in other high school subjects in which the test for knowl- 
edge is either oral work of the individual pupils at their seats or 
written work at the board. There is no good reason why the 
written test should not be used in translating foreign languages, 
* See Chapter VII., p. 136. 



1 68 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

in summarizing important facts in history, in explaining prin- 
ciples in science, and indeed in setting forth facts in any subject 
in which the ordinary recitation method is now used. The 
recitation method as it is commonly employed is largely a failure 
when it is directed toward testing the pupiVs knowledge. In the 
high school it has become largely "lesson-hearing," the lowest 
and most inefficient aspect of teaching. How profitless this 
method of conducting class exercises often is, the following 
examples, quoted in the words of the observers, will serve to 
illustrate.^ 

"As soon as the pupils were seated, the teacher sent five members 
of the class to the blackboard to write out synopses of verbs which 
had been assigned the previous day. While the writing on the black- 
board was in. progress, the remaining pupils recited the assigned lesson 
from an elementary Latin book. As the teacher called a name, a 
pupil rose from his seat, translated a Latin sentence into English, 
and received a mark for his recitation. Then another pupil was called 
and the process repeated. Many of the pupils, particularly the 
brighter ones, translated with great rapidity, and sometimes almost 
inaudibly, while the poorer pupils stumbled over their work and 
left a most confused impression. The pupils were manifestly reciting 
to the desk, and for the sole benefit of the teacher. When the transla- 
tion was ended, then the work on the board was taken up and cor- 
rected. In this part of the recitation, too, the teacher seemed satisfied 
when she had received the right form from the pupil who was pre- 
senting the work, and took no pains to emphasize the work for the 
benefit of the class as a whole. The only general comment on this 
phase of the recitation was a concluding remark from the teacher, — 
' This work shows that the verbs need studying up.' The pupils 
looked as if they had heard this observation before. 

"After the board work the class began with Gallia est omnis divisa, 
etc., pursuing the conventional routine of rising, reciting, sitting down, 
and receiving a mark, which procedure might have been justified as a 
purely review exercise, but was entirely out of place ia an advanced 

^ See also Chapter VII., p. 136. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 69 

lesson where the difficulties of the class needed to be searched out 
and definitely cleared up. So the hour dragged along, and at length 
the bell rang, whereupon the teacher announced in a hurried manner 

that the lesson for tomorrow would go to line . On the board 

had been written a synopsis of the verbs to be studied for the next 
day, and as the class was passing out the teacher called attention to 
them. And so the lesson ended, as doubtless many previous lessons 
had ended, and many subsequent lessons would end. The result 
attained was the reaUzation of the aim, — to get through the lesson." 

"The class in English history numbered twenty-eight pupils, six- 
teen girls and twelve boys. After the calling of the roll, the teacher 
took out of his desk a pack of cards on which the names of the in- 
dividual members of the class were written, and shuffled them, prob- 
ably to show that he had no particular designs in calling upon any 
individual to recite, and that the whole procedure was to be impartial 
and quite mechanical. The pupil whose name came up was designated 
as the victim. He had to show what he knew about the particular 
topic, and when the teacher had sufficiently quizzed him, he again 
resorted to the divination of the cards to discover who should be 
next. This routine was repeated throughout forty minutes of the 
hour. The last five minutes were devoted to a consideration of the 
work for the next day, and this was the only part of the recitation 
in which the teacher seemed to be aware that he had pupils before 
him that were to be taught. Up to this time he had treated his pupils 
merely as an aggregate of individuals from whom he was to get cer- 
tain information for the purpose of deciding how much of the as- 
signed lesson each knew, in order that he might give to each and 
every one his just mark. He did not impress me as a teacher, but as 
a foreman or boss whose duty it was to inspect the work of those 
under him to see that it came up to the standard. I did not find the 
methods of this teacher strikingly peculiar. In all of the classes that 
I visited in this school, I did not find a third that were conducted on 
an essentially different principle. For the most part it was dreary 
lesson-hearing and marking. It ought to be said in this connection, 
too, that the teachers were not beginners. Most of them were sea- 
soned instructors with years of successful (?) experience to their 
credit." 



170 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

"To what an extent this teacher had carried the method of lesson- 
hearing, and how definitely she had impressed upon her pupils the 
idea that the chief function of the class exercises was to recite to her, 
is shown by the following incident. The class was reading Whittier's 
Snow-Bound. Individual members were called upon to rise in their 
seats and read a few verses of the selection, after which the teacher 
questioned the pupil on some of the details of what he had read. No 
pupil seemed to be reading for the benefit of the class; the teacher 
was the only one considered. At length a girl who had been given a 
seat in front of the very front row was called upon. It was a single 
seat at one side of the room. The teacher was standing at this side 
of the room near the wall, and the girl turned and faced the teacher, 
with her back to all of the class, and read just loud enough for the 
teacher to hear and make the necessary comments and corrections. 
For three minutes pupil and teacher carried on their individual 
colloquy. It seemed never to have occurred to either pupil or teacher 
that the pupil should face the class and read for its benefit, and as 
far as I could judge, there was not a pupil in the room who saw any- 
thing peculiar or out of the ordinary in the manner in which the 
recitation was being conducted." 

That by no means all and probably not the majority of high 
school recitations are characterized by the deadening procedure 
described above, the following typical reports of observers indi- 
cate: — 

"Today I Hstened to a lesson in EngHsh in which not a pupil rose 
to recite and not a question was asked, yet it seemed to me a very 
successful lesson, and one in which the class learned much. It is 
true the pupils did not take away any added store of new facts, but 
if I could judge from their attentive attitude and the appreciation 
and interest revealed by the expression on their faces, most of them 
obtained a new insight into the nature of genuine fun, and an in- 
creased love for real humor. During the entire hour the teacher 
read to the class parts of Ho wells' Albany Depot. She was an excellent 
reader, with a gift for facial expression, and effective gesture. Her 
occasional comments were also suggestive. If the class enjoyed the 
hour as much as I did, they surely spent it profitably." 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 171 

"In the lesson in geometry that I observed on Thursday the teacher 
seemed more interested in making the pupils think than in finding 
out how well they had learned the theorems in the book. She spent 
fifteen minutes in testing their knowledge through a written exercise, 
and the remainder of the period in developing through question and 
answer a statement of the advanced theorems and outlining in a 
general way the proof. She told little outright. She showed great 
skill in so directing her questions as to make the pupils see what the 
facts and principles were. It was an interesting lesson, and the 
class responded well." 

"The teacher (of history) possessed the art of making the past 
living and present. He emphasized facts when they were important, 
and he demanded accuracy, but he always took pains to show that 
the facts had some bearing on other facts or on general principles 
which they illustrated. He tried to make the pupils feel that some- 
how the Romans were men such as we are today, and that the causes 
for their actions were not different from the causes of our actions 
at present. I have heard such teaching criticized as 'distorting' 
history, but it seemed to me that far from distorting facts it gave 
them their true meaning. I should have found more of my history 
in high school and college interesting, if it had been distorted' in 
this fashion." 

"This teacher did not tell his pupils the facts about magnetism; 
better still he did not require them to recite about these facts. He 
showed the facts by a series of careful demonstrations, and obtained 
from his pupils a statement of the facts in their own words. I am 
sure they will remember the essential points in this lesson when much 
that they have learned from the text-book will have past into forget- 
fulness." 

"Until I witnessed this lesson, I had supposed that beginning 
Latin was a subject to be learned almost exclusively from a book, and 
that the sole business of a Latin teacher was to Usten to liis pupils 
recite, and to correct their mistakes. I evidently was in error, if the 
lesson that I observed is at all typical. The teacher spent but a small 
portion of the hour in listening to pupils recite paradigms, and give 
rules. Most of the period was devoted to showing the class the best 
method of translating their exercises from Latin into EngHsh, and 



172 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

working out with them the technique of the procedure. After the 
class the teacher told me that as a rule the pupils did more reciting 
than on the day of my observation, but she also said that she spent 
a considerable portion of the class period in developing the work 
with her pupils, and in showing them how to study. She was sure 
that it brought results in the end, and was well worth while." 

(c) Tests should he made as brief as possible in order that the 
major part of the recitation period may be given over to the more 
important work of drill and instruction. — ^The fact cannot be too 
often emphasized that the test for knowledge is never an end in 
itself, but only a means to an end. The real function of the 
recitation is to drill and instruct the pupil. The test for knowl- 
edge cannot be made a substitute for the more important phases 
of teaching. In some classes it must necessarily occupy a larger 
place than in others, but as a rule should not consume more 
than a third of the total recitation period. In many classes a 
five-minute test at the beginning of the period will be sufficient. 
Such a test must of course be written and be so devised, that the 
pupils can answer the questions in a few direct words. 

The five-minute test at the beginning of the hour can be used to 
advantage in such a subject as history. In this written quiz the at- 
tempt is made to hold the class responsible for the more important 
facts brought out in the lesson of the preceding day. Such tests are 
of course too brief for more formal examinations which are to cover 
the work of many lessons. Some teachers have found it advantageous 
to give a five-minute test both at the beginning and the end of the 
recitation period. ^ The test at the end of the recitation serves a 
double function. In the first place, as we said in Chapter IV., it acts 
as an incentive to the pupils to give their attention to the main points 
brought out during the recitation period, since they know that they 
are to be held responsible for them in the quiz that is to follow. In 
the second place, this test serves as an immediate review and a sum- 
mary of what has preceded, and for this reason is an important factor 

^ See Chapter IV., p. 67. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 73 

in the comprehension and retention of the main facts presented during 
the recitation. 

(d) Tests should not all he of one type. — Tests to determine 
knowledge and skill, should not be of one type alone. There are 
various forms such tests may take. The most common test 
employed in the schools is that of ability to recall the parts of 
what has previously been learned. This recall may be a ver- 
batim restatement, as in the case of rote memory, or it may be 
recall in the terms of the sense or meaning of what has been 
learned. In most subjects of the high school curriculum mere 
verbatim recall has but a minor place. Recall of ideas is the 
test of attainment in such subjects as history, science, and litera- 
ture. 

Another valid test for learning is to determine whether the 
presentation of one of a pair of associations tends to call up the 
second member of the pair. For example, a pupil is learning a 
German-English vocabulary. His knowledge may be tested by 
asking him to repeat this vocabulary word for word, or by finding 
out how rapidly he can reply with the English word when the 
German equivalent is given. Clearly this second method of 
testing knowledge is better for this particular kind of learning, 
than is the first method. 

Another test of learning is the ability of the learner to recog- 
nize a word, an object, or a situation, when presented. The boy 
who is taking a course in the manual arts knows his tools when 
he can use them; a girl knows her lesson in French if she recog- 
nizes the meaning of the words when she meets them in the text. 
At one time it was believed that a pupil had mastered his text in 
grammar or science when he was capable of giving a set of defini- 
tions or rules. The real test is not, however, that he remembers a 
collection of words and their sequence, but that he knows how 
to use in a concrete instance the principles contained in these 
formal statements. 



174 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

Closely associated with recall as a test for knowledge is re- 
construction. This latter test consists in putting into its proper 
order materials that are given out of order. The memory for the 
order and arrangement may in this instance be more important 
than the memory for the details that are to be arranged. In 
history it is not only necessary to know the names of the kings 
of England, but also the order of their reigns; it is perhaps as 
important to know the order of the admission of the States into 
the Union as to give the names of the States themselves. In 
these cases the sequence of arrangement is significant. 

Tests for knowledge may aim to determine facility in either 
what has just been learned, or in what has been retained for 
some time. Obviously the latter test is the more important as a 
measure for real knowledge. A large part of what is barely 
learned rapidly fades from the mind. Within a few hours much 
has disappeared. For this reason tests that require the reproduc- 
tion of that which has been in the mind for some time are de- 
sirable if the pupil's real ability is to be measured. High schools 
have sometimes made a mistake in abandoning examinations at 
the end of courses in such subjects as history, where that which 
has been learned in the early part of the course may be quite 
forgotten if it is not held in mind by the pupil for the purpose of 
a final test in the subject. Examinations are a distinct incentive 
to retention, and in those subjects in which retention is desired 
they should not be abandoned. 

Obviously there are certain subjects in the high school curriculum 
that do not require final examinations from the fact that in these 
subjects the knowledge and skill are cumulative, so to speak. If a 
pupil at the end of the year can translate his Latin well, it shows 
that he has mastered what has gone before; if the learner in the class 
in stenography can take the dictation of the teacher with requisite 
speed and accuracy, this is a test that involves all that has preceded. 
The case is quite different in a text-book course in physics, for ex- 
ample, where the learning may be taken up section by section, and 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 75 

each part left without definite relation to the rest. Here an examina- 
tion requiring a knowledge and an organization of the entire course 
is most desirable. 



As a rule teachers are too stereotyped in the kind of examina- 
tions that they give. These tests are very much of the same 
pattern. What is needed is a variety of tests, suited to the 
various educational results that we strive to measure. Giving 
the proper test for knowledge, the test that best suits the par- 
ticular needs of the subject and the pupils is an important func- 
tion of instruction, since it serves as an incentive to, and a device 
for learning, as well as a measure of achievement. 

Summary of the Preceding Discussion. — In conclusion we 
may bring together the most important facts in regard to the 
test for knowledge as an aim of the recitation. The high school 
teacher must observe the following cautions: — 

Do not make the entire recitation period a test for knowledge. 
A reasonable sampling of the knowledge and skill that the pupils 
have acquired is sufficient. Above all, do not turn the classroom 
exercises into mere "lesson-hearing." 

Do not over-emphasize tests to determine rote memory; test 
for ideas, ability, power to do. 

Vary the tests to suit the subject, the pupil, and the aims of 
instruction. Ability to reproduce what has already been learned 
is not the only valid means of determining what has been ac- 
quired. 

Record the results of the tests so that they will be significant; 
so that they will mean something to both pupil and teacher. The 
records must not only show failure or progress, but they must 
indicate just where failure or progress lies. 

In marking, make as fine gradations as practical. It is not 
satisfactory to indicate all grades of excellence by two or three 
letters of the alphabet. At least six grades are possible. 

Make the standards of marking as objective as possible. 



176 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

Where definite scales of measurement xist, use them; where they 
do not, attempt to arrive at some objective measures of the 
pupil's attainment. Do not trust to mere impression. 

Standards to measure appreciation cannot be exact or finely 
graded, but tliere must be certain objectives before the teacher 
in all subjects, and phases of subjects taught. To have no object 
is to travel in the forest without path, guide, or compass. 

In order to hold the attention of the pupil and to economize 
the time of the recitation, use written tests whenever possible in 
'preference to oral tests. In this respect in particular the entire 
procedure in the classroom needs to be fundamentally and 
radically changed. 



CHAPTER IX ' 

THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD. — THE NATURE AND FUNC- 
TION OF DRILL 

Conflicting Opinions in Regard to the Value of Drill. — 

Twenty years ago, J. M. Rice published in the Forum, ^ under the 
title of ''The Futility of the Spelling Grind," the results of a 
series of investigations in the elementary schools of the United 
States. One of his principal conclusions was that practice in 
spelling of over fifteen minutes a day was wasteful, since addi- 
tional study seemed to accomplish no results. Later O. P. 
Cornman gave spelling tests to certain schools in Philadelphia, 
the results of which he published in a monograph entitled, 
"Spelling in the Elementary School."^ The conclusions of 
Cornman were in many respects similar to those of Rice. In 
more recent years further studies by Courtis and others have 
made it clear that many children in our schools fail to show 
improvement through practice. 

Such results have been taken by many to indicate the useless- 
ness of drill, and there have been not a few who have considered 
drill as a method of the dark ages in education, and who have 
decried its wastefulness, its drudgery, and its deadening effects. 
Some who have emphasized the necessity of teaching the pupil to ■ 
observe, to think, to develop tastes, and to acquire permanent 
interests have seen in drill a foe to school progress. At times it 
has seemed as if many of our educational leaders desired that all 
drill should be banished from the schoolroom. The advocates of 
such a radical change in school procedure have never succeeded, 

*Vol. XXIII., pp. 162-172; 407-419 (1897). '1902. 

177 



w~ 



178 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

of course, in having a program of this sort put into actual opera- 
tion, and indeed the most outspoken opponents of drill would 
themselves not attempt to eliminate it in all its phases. Drill, 
— which signifies at times a dull, dreary, fruitless grind, also in- 
volves persistency of effort; it means "keeping everlastingly at 
it." At the present time there is a decided reaction against this 
extreme position in regard to the futility of drill. Drill is coming 
back to its proper place in the schoolroom, though it will never 
again be used as the exclusive method of teaching, if indeed it 
has ever been so employed. 

Causes for a Reaction in Favor of Drill. — ^There are various 
causes why there is a reaction today in favor of drill. Some of 
the most obvious are: — 
'— (a) A better understanding of the doctrine of interest in its rela- 
tion to effort. — In Chapter IV., the fact was emphasized that 
interest is not to be confused with mere entertainment. Interest 
is not engendered by "taking things easy." Indeed, it often 
dies out when such an attitude is present. The sanity and 
clarity of the writings of such leaders in education as Bagley in 
regard to the value of effort have helped to do away with the 
preachings of "soft pedagogy," which at one time were sure of a 
favorable hearing at any gathering of teachers. 

(b) The failure of instruction without drill. — Instruction with- 
out drill will not work. Remove every vestige of drill from the 
schools today, and all learning would cease. Drill, in the form of 
practice, is an absolute essential of every stage of instruction 
from the kindergarten through the university. The trained 
student of our graduate schools is the drilled student. The 
good teacher will soon find out for himself, without any abstract 
knowledge in regard to educational theories and practices, that 
*%he cannot get results without drill. In a certain very real sense 
drill is the end of all learning, which seeks to perfect the learner 
in those habits of knowledge, of skill, of methods of procedure, 
and of judgment that will make him an eflS.cient worker in the 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 79 

world in which he lives. Even reasoning itself is perfected only 
when fundamentally correct habits of thought have been estab- 
lished and made habitual. You cannot teach the pupil to think 
without training him to think. 

(c) The results of experimental education. — Recent experiments 
in the psychology of learning have conclusively shown the great 
importance of practice in improving any act of skill, or indeed 
any mental or physical function whatsoever. 

These investigations have been varied and extensive. They began 
with Bryan and Barter's ^ study of improvement in telegraphy, pub- 
lished in the years 1897-99; they include similar studies by Book,^ 
Swift,2 Rejall and Hill ^ on improvement in learning to typewrite; 
studies in tossing balls, in tossing shots into a bottle, drawing lines 
between two parallel lines of a maze, tapping of a telegraphic key, 
observing small visual details, marking out a's on a printed page, can- 
celling zeroes, substituting English for German script, substituting 
letters for others according to a key, substituting letters for numbers, 
improvement in adding, improvement in memorizing, improvement 
in reading Russian, etc. This by no means exhausts the list. Those 
cited show, however, something of the nature and varied character 
of the abilities investigated.^ Besides experiments in human learn- 
ing, a variety of studies has been made concerning the improvement 
in animal learning by such men as Thorndike, Watson, and Yerkes. 

^ Studies in the Physiology and Psychology of the Telegraphic Language, 
Psy. Review, Vol. IV., pp. 27-53; Vol. VI., pp. 345-375 (1897-99). 

2 University of Montana Puhlicatioiis in Psychology; Bulletin No. 53 (1908). 

' The Acquisition of Skill in Typewriting, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. I., 
pp. 295-305 (1904). 

* Reported by Thorndike, Educational Psychology, Vol. II., pp. 102-115; 
140, 210 f., 244 f., 256, 289, 309, 312. 

^ The literature on the question of improvement through practice is con- 
veniently brought together and admirably digested and summarized by 
Thorndike in the second volume of his Educational Psychology. It is also 
found in a more compact form in his Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, 
pages 125-282. IMuch of the work here cited was done under the direction 
of Thorndike, who is the leading writer and investigator in this field. 



l8o INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

All of these studies in regard to learning present the same 
picture, namely, — practically unvarying improvement in skill 
through practice. The results of these various investigations are 
summarized by Thorndike in the following words: — 

" So far as I am aware of the facts, no mental function has ever 
been deliberately practiced with an eye to improving it, and with 
a proper opportunity for the law of effect to operate without 
some improvement as a result. There have been cases where one 
investigator has failed to find improvement, but where others 
have found it. There have been cases, of course, where certain 
individuals failed to improve. On the whole, however, it seems 
fair to say that all functions that anyone is likely ever to take any 
theoretical or practical interest in are improvable unless the general 
practice of life has already put them at their limit; and that the 
latter case is very rare." 

Again he says: — "First, hardly any functions have ever been prac- 
ticed in the course of the scientific study of mental functions which 
did not improve and, provided they were of fairly narrow scope and 
with success and failure easily distinguishable, at a fairly rapid rate. 
Second, there are striking cases of individuals who have had enor- 
mously long practice, as taken in the course of schools or trades, and 
who have kept at the same level of efficiency for a long time, but who, 
under more favorable conditions make notable advances. Third, a 
new stimulus to interest and effort, or new methods of training, often 
produce a similar advance in the ordinary work of the world. Fourth, 
all that we know of the neurones as modifiable organs, and of the 
physiology of learning, seems to me to show that many more connec- 
tions can be formed than usually are formed, and that any given 
set of connections can be brought to a surety and fluency of action 
approximating in results the expertness at which we marvel, if con- 
ditions of proper stimulation and reward by satisfaction are pro- 
vided." 

It may seem from such results as these above cited, and from 
the opinion of such a competent experimenter and authority as 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD l8l 

Thorndike that there is no merit in the contention of those who 
have emphasized the lack of value of drill. This, however, is 
hardly a legitimate conclusion. There is something in the claim 
of those who have decried drill in the ordinarily accepted sense 
of the word. Just what merit there is in this contention the 
following pages will attempt to make clear. In order to do this, 
an analysis of the nature and conditions of effective drill will be 
necessary. 

The Laws of Habit-formation. — Drill is in reality another 
name for practice or habit-formation, and, consequently, in order 
to understand the principles underlying it and the methods of its 
successful operation, it will be desirable to consider in some 
detail its essential nature. Habit-formation may be thought of 
as the ultimate end of all learning, no matter what its nature 
may be. Habit consists in the establishment of connections 
between various situations and various responses, by making 
these connections firm and the paths between situation and 
response permeable. 

There are many kinds of habits, some exceedingly simple and 
others bewilderingly complex; some are habits of a low order as 
measured by ultimate facility, as, for example, the single-letter 
habit in striking the keys of a typewriter; others are of a rela- 
tively high order, as for example, the word habit in operating 
the typewriter. In other words, there exists in a complex act of 
skill a ''hierarchy of habits." There are extremely elementary 
habits that, so to speak, are swallowed up by larger habits, and 
these by still larger ones, until, for example, the typist no longer 
thinks when he is operating his machine of single letter, or of 
words, but of whole phrases and sentences. The smaller habits 
have been transofrmed into the large and more inclusive ones. 

If we consider more specifically the school situation we shall see 
that this principle of the diversity and complexity of habits holds 
good in every subject of the curriculum, and in every circumstance 
of school life. There are, for example, the 3x4 habit (extremely 



l82 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

simple and definite); the habit of carrying in addition (somewhat 
more complex and intricate and hence less easily established); the 
habit of clear articulation in reading; the habit of studying the map 
in getting a lesson in geography; the habit of looking for the main 
topics in an assignment in history; the habit of correct punctuation 
in English composition; the habit of visualizing concrete situations 
in reading descriptive prose or poetry; the habit of definitely finding 
and stating a proposition in geometry; the habit of observing what 
occurs in the course of an experiment in chemistry; the habit of keep- 
ing a note-book in a neat and orderly fashion; the habit of attention 
during the recitation; the habit of obedience to those in authority; 
the habit of reading stories of adventure, and so on through a list 
that is practically endless. Indeed, the law of all school activity and 
of life itself is the law of habit. 

Since some habits are much more intricate and complex than 
others, it follows in the nature of the case that under ordinary 
conditions some will never reach the degree of perfection and 
automatic precision that others will attain, and consequently, 
some activities will be so imperfectly set up that the habitual 
phase of their manifestation may be overlooked. However, there 
is no learning in the entire curriculum that does not in some 
measure aim at and to some degree attain facility and precision. 
So we find that habit is all-pervasive and all-inclusive. It is the 
very essence of the learning process. Habit-formation conforms 
to the following laws in all acquisition of whatever type: — 
"•^ (a) Repetition of the desired function. — It is a maxim of all 
learning and a fact of daily experience that "Practice makes 
perfect." No one who desires to perfect his knowledge, or skill, 
ever attempts to do so without repetition. Iteration, and reitera- 
""tion is the chief method of the schools, and has been since time 
immemorial. However, as we have seen, it does not always 
bring results. The reasons for its failure are important, since 
they throw a significant light on the psychology of learning and 
on the validity of certain school methods. In a word, repetition 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 83 

is often inadequate to bring results, because of the fact that it 
is not the sole condition of habit-formation. There are other 
principles, equally important, which if disregarded may bring 
to naught all our efforts toward progress. 

(b) Pleasurable consequences in the learning. — If we desire to 
establish a habit in an animal or a child, or if we wish to perfect 
one in ourselves, we shall find it necessary to attach to the be- 
havior that we wish to set up some pleasurable outcome, or if it 
be a "negative response" (a so-called habit of avoidance), an 
unpleasant result. This is a fact clearly established through 
common observation and experience, and through experimental 
inquiry. The function of reward and punishment in controlling 
behavior is too well known to need extended comment. 

The reasons for the operation of this principle, however, are 
not altogether clear though the fact itself cannot be denied. One 
explanation is found in the principle of "circular activity," 
which leads the individual to repeat an act when it has resulted 
satisfactorily. The satisfactory consequence is supposed to 
heighten the tone of the organism and to cause the same act 
to be repeated until it has become temporarily wearisome 
through excessive exercise. This principle is illustrated in the 
child's acquisition of spoken language. He repeats over and 
over again some sound that he first utters quite spontaneously. 
This explains the seemingly meaningless ma-ma-mas, pa-pa- 
pas, and da-da-das, and similar babblings that characterize the 
rudimentary beginnings of infant speech. Here the function of 
satisfaction is to lead to repetition, and consequently through 
repetition to establish connections between situation and re- 
sponse. 

Thorndike has given an additional explanation for the efficacy 
of satisfaction in establishing a habit in what he terms the "Law 
of Effect." He holds that a pleasurable state of affairs in and of 
itself tends to establish more firmly a habit irrespective of 
whether added repetitions follow or not. On the other hand an 



"> 



184 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

unpleasurable state of affairs tends to weaken a habit although 
the number of repetitions are not diminished. That is, if a child 
repeats his spelling lesson twenty times under agreeable condi- 
tions these twenty repetitions are more effective than if they 
were made under conditions of indifference or with actual dis- 
taste. He says, — 

''To the situation, 'a modifiable connection being made by 
him between an S (situation) and an R (response) and being 
accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs,' man 
responds, other things being equal, by an increase in the strength 
of this connection. To a connection similar, save that an annoy- 
ing state of affairs goes with or follows it, man responds, other 
things being equal, by a decrease in the strength of that con- 
nection." 

Again he writes, — *' These tendencies for connections to grow 
strong by exercise (repetition) and satisfying consequences and 
to grow weak by disuse and annoying consequences should, if 
importance were the measure of the space to be allotted to 
topics, preempt at least half of this inventory." In other words, 
Thorndike maintains that the principle of repetition on the 
positive side, with disuse on the negative side, together with 
that of satisfaction on the positive side and dissatisfaction on 
the negative side constitute the two great laws of learning, habit, 
.drill. 

Not all psychologists agree with him on this point. Watson,^ 
for example, insists that satisfaction as such has nothing to do 
with habit-formation. Given a certain number of repetitions it 
makes no difference to learning whether these repetitions have 
been attended by, or whether they result in, satisfaction or dis- 
satisfaction. Watson, however, would not deny that satisfaction 
tends to lead to repetition, and dissatisfaction to avoidance. In 
the absence of definite experimental evidence on this point, judg- 
ment must be reserved as to the facts at issue. However, there 

1 See Behavior, An Introdtiction to Comparative Psychology^ p. 257 (1914). 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 85 

can be no doubt that pleasure in an activity tends to make that 
activity more perfect^ either because it leads to repetition of that 
activity, or because in addition to this the mere pleasure itself 
apart from repetition is a means of establishing a habit. Since 
this is so, the attitude the teacher should take is to surround all 
desirable school activities with pleasurable accompaniments and 
pleasurable consequences ^ and all undesirable activities with un- 
pleasurable circumstances and results. 

It is to be remembered that there are three kinds of pleasurable 
outcomes that may attach themselves to an activity. The 
pleasure may be inherent in the exercise of the act itself, and of 
necessity attend its expression; it may flow from it as a conse- 
quence of the act, or it may be artificially attached to the act. 
For example, manual work in the shops may be a pleasure to the 
boy from the fact that he finds it inherently agreeable to use his 
hands and manipulate tools; or again he may enter upon it with 
zest because he believes as a result he will soon be able to go out- 
into the world and earn an independent living; or finally -"he 
may take pleasure in his work through the consequence of an 
artificially attached reward, such as the commendation of his 
teachers, his parents, or friends. It is not always possible to 
make the pupil work with pleasure merely for the work's sake; it 
is fortunately possible in many instances to make the school 
work pleasurable either in its natural or artificial consequences. 
Pleasure of some sort must be the attendant of repetition, and 
the teacher cannot hope to get substantial results from drill 
that is accompanied by indifference or distaste. 

(c) Attention during the process of learning, — In all human 
learning the mental attitude is an extremely important factor. 
In animal learning it is of but slight significance, because of the 
fact that the attitude of animals toward a task that they are 
being taught to perform is so unstable and fluctuating that 
attention can be considered of but slight value in their learning. 
With human beings, however, the "set of the mind" is a deter- 



1 86 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

mining element in the learning process, and changes habit- 
formation from a purely objective condition to one that is 
largely directed and modified by subjective controls. The 
nature and direction of attention become one of the most 
important problems in human acquisition, and the value or the 
uselessness of drill is directly dependent on the attentive attitude 
of the pupil. 

There are two main reasons why attention is so important 
during acquisition. The first of these is found in the fact that 
without attention repetition may at times be quite formal and 
external. In other words, while the pupil is "going through the 
motions," the repetition is purely seeming and make believe. 

A good example of seeming repetition that is formal and external 
is sometimes found in oral drill in concert. The pupils in a class in 
a foreign language are frequently required to repeat in unison certain 
words, phrases, or sentences in order that they may get the correct 
pronunciation. If such a group is observed, it is generally found that 
some few are really leading in the exercise; many others are moving 
their lips, but are in reality getting little or no genuine practice. The 
repetition is purely formal and external. Written drill, like oral drill, 
may also fail because the pupil is giving no thought to what he is 
writing. It is a practice of doubtful expediency to require pupils 
in the elementary or in the secondary school to memorize a list of 
words or facts by writing them down time after time. 

In the second place, attention during repetition is necessary 
in order that the learner may be aware of the object of the drill 
and the elements that enter into its successful accomplishment. 
It is extremely important that the pupil know when he has 
achieved what he is expected to do; otherwise there is no cer- 
tainty that he will be benefited by his attainment. This matter 
was discussed at some length in the preceding chapter ^ and need 
not be further elaborated here. In this connection, however, it 

1 See p. 159. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 187 

should be said that one of the principal reasons why a knowledge 
of results is necessary is that the pleasure that comes with 
achievement is possible only when that achievement is known. 
In all learning of any complexity, at least, pleasurable outcomes 
are dependent on a knowledge of those outcomes. Attention, 
then, on the end to be obtained is an essential element in what 
Thorndike calls the Law of Effect. 

Not only should the learner know what the goal of his en- 
deavors is; he should also give attention to processes that he is 
following in order to reach the desired results. It is possible to 
stumble on right methods of practice without recognizing in any 
way that these are the best methods. In this case they are often 
dropped and wasteful and wrong methods substituted. 

This essential principle in the psychology of habit-formation has 
often been brought out in the experimental literature on the curve 
of learning. For example, in an investigation recently conducted in 
the laboratory of experimental education at Brown University in 
which the problem was to study the improvement of three subjects 
in folding handkerchiefs according to a certain standard pattern, it 
was found that one of the learners hit upon an economical device' 
used by experts in this method of folding, employed it for several 
trials, and at length dropped it without again returning to it during 
the course of the experiment. There was nothing to stamp this 
method immediately as the one most desirable, and it did not enter 
sufficiently into the attentive consciousness of the subject to in- 
fluence his subsequent learning. 

The following is an illustration of this principle taken from the 
field of high school practice: — A teacher found that several members 
of his class in algebra who had for some days handed in correct ex- 
amples in factoring polynomials, were later unable to do examples of 
this type. He concluded that his pupils had either forgotten the 
method that they had previously employed correctly, or that in 
doing the earher examples they had received assistance outside of 
the class. It was suggested to the teacher that he inquire more 
definitely into the causes of their failure. On doing this, he found 



1 88 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

that in the case of the examples handed in correctly, the pupils had 
simply followed the model examples in the text in a blind fashion, not 
definitely understanding the processes involved. Later, when these 
model examples were no longer before the pupils, they had no idea 
of the correct procedure. 

This fact has an important bearing on the value of incidental 
learning, as it has been termed. Some have maintained that 
much valuable drill is secured as a by-product. In doing one 
thing the learner is often practiced in doing something else that 
does not appear as the main part of the learning, and which, 
indeed, may be quite unrecognized by the learner. While it is 
possible that this incidental drill may have some effect, its value 
in any particular instance is so uncertain that it cannot be 
safely employed as a principle of learning. 

(d) Consistency and invariability of response, — ^Long ago James 
in his chapter on Habit pointed out the fact that in order to 
break an undesirable habit it was necessary never to lapse into 
"^ it, when once the reform had been undertaken. This is a matter 
of common experience. Reeducation is much more difficult than 
education. It is better that a pupil should come to a subject 
with no knowledge or skill regarding it than to come to it with 
incorrect notions and wasteful methods. Sometimes college 
instructors say that they do not wish their students who come 
from the secondary school to have had any previous training in 
the subjects they are to take in the higher institution. This is 
because the college teacher assumes that the teaching in the 
lower school is wrong, and he consequently blames the secondary 
teacher; similarly the high school teacher blames the elementary 
teacher, for often in his opinion, he is the only person who has 
the correct method. Likewise the business man sometimes says 
that he does not care to have the novice in his office familiar 
with the courses in economics as given in the college, and occa- 
sionally there is a school principal or superintendent who be- 
lieves what the student learns in the normal school or in the 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 89 

department of education in a university is worse than nothing, 
because what he learns is wrong, and he has to be set right. 
Probably in most instances these people are incorrect in their 
opinions. They are right, however, in assuming that wrong 
practice is worse than no practice at all. 

An example of the difficulty of overcoming wrong practice is fur- 
nished me by a teacher of history in a city high school which receives 
a considerable number of pupils from a small country high school 
offering a two-years' course. The pupils from the small high school 
have been taught to study history topic by topic. The teacher in 
the city high school found that these pupils were able to do little 
more than "recite facts." A half-year was required to habituate 
them in methods of studying by outline and problem-questions. For 
this reason, they failed to make a satisfactory grade in their junior 
history courses, and the teacher was obliged to give them individual 
instruction. This doubled his work in those classes in which the 
country high school pupils were enrolled. 

Not only should the beginnings of drill be free from the burden 
of correcting bad methods previously acquired, into which there 
is a constant tendency to lapse, but they should be guarded 
against falling into incorrect practices through lack of supervi- 
sion over the elementary processes. Here we see the necessity of 
attention on the elements of learning discussed in a previous 
paragraph. 

It should be pointed out that the effect of doing something in a 
wasteful or incorrect way is quite different from not doing it at all. 
If a pupil pronounces a word correctly ten times in the class and 
then outside of the class pronounces it ten times wrong, he has tended 
to destroy the correct habit previously acquired. If he does not pro- 
nounce the word outside of the class at all, then what he loses is due 
to a gradual waning of the effect of his previous practice through 
temporary cessation of the learning, but if he pronounces the word 
in the wrong way this actively interferes with the correct associations 
that have been set up through the class exercise. An analogy may 



IQO INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

serve to make this fact clear. When I open up the sluiceway from 
the reservoir to the pond, the latter gradually fills. When I shut off 
the supply from the reservoir, the water in the pond slowly evaporates, 
but if I shut off the sluiceway and open the channel from the pond 
to the stream, the water soon falls. Similarly, when a habit is being 
formed, it becomes more and more nearly perfect through its continued 
exercise. When I stop exercising it, the habit slowly loses its strength. 
The sluiceway has been closed, and natural evaporation is taking 
place. However, when I exercise an opposing habit, the habit first 
formed begins to distintegrate. It is being drained off, because an 
opposing habit is drawing away its strength. 

Summary of the Principal Reasons for the Failure of 
Drill to Accomplish Desired Results. — In the light of the fore- 
going discussion of the principal laws of habit-formation, we are 
now prepared to answer with some definiteness the problem 
presented at the beginning of this chapter concerning the ap- 
parent contradiction between the experiences of the classroom 
and the findings of educational psychology on the value of drill 
in perfecting skill and knowledge. In general we may say that 
drill is futile when it relies merely on the device of formal, 

"^--~£xternal repetition to achieve results. 

Pupils who do not improve in algebra, although they are made 
to recite the same principle over and over again, although they 
are constantly assigned the same type of example to solve out- 
side of class, at their seats, or at the board, fail because they are 
merely repeating their work and doing nothing more. Perhaps 
they are practicing under compulsion, and it is a dull grind. 
They experience no pleasure in what they are doing, and there- 
fore they do as little as possible; perhaps they are going through 

^^he motions with no attention to what they are doing, never 
noticing when they are in error, never trying to work with 
correct and economical methods, blundering heedlessly and care- 
lessly along; perhaps they are practicing wrong methods as often 
as right ones, forgetting what they learned in the class, and un- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 191 

learning everything that they have formerly partly acquired. 
The teacher must be ever on the alert to see that drill is exercised 
under the best possible conditions. He must attempt to make the 
outcomes of the work pleasurable, and the practice as little of a 
grind as possible; he must strive to focus the attention of the 
pupil on what he is doing and how he is doing it; he must do all 
that he can to prevent exceptions in right methods from creeping 
in. If he does these things, drill is sure to bring results. 

Some, who have seen in drill nothing but barren repetition,, 
and who have found that it often is futile, have concluded that 
it is a mere formal activity which goes on without skilful direc- 
tion, and therefore have looked upon it as something quite 
incidental to the real business of teaching. Such persons have 
hastily concluded that it makes little difference how large a drill 
class is, or who conducts it. Skill in teaching here is at a mini- 
mum, hence it is a matter of minor importance who directs the 
work. Nothing could be farther from the truth. There is just 
as much method to be used in drill as in the other activities of 
the recitation. How to drill the pupil is just as much of a problem 
as how to teach him to think. Both demand the teacher's highest art. 
We have seen in the preceding pages of this chapter some of 
the reasons why this is so, and this topic will be further devel- 
oped in what is to follow. 

The Principle of Excess Activity in Learning. — Thorndike 
in his Educational Psychology has pointed out an important prin- 
ciple of learning which he terms the law of "Multiple Response" 
or "Varied Reaction." He gives as an example of this the 
activities of a kitten that is confined alone in a small cage. "It 
tries to squeeze through any openings; it claws and bites at the 
bars or wire; it thrusts its paws out through any opening and 
claws at everything it reaches; it continues its efforts when it 
strikes anything loose and shaky; it may claw at things within 
the box. . . . The vigor with which it struggles is extraordinary. 
For eight or ten minutes it will claw and bite and squeeze in- 



192 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

cessantly." These excessive waste motions are not peculiar 
alone to animals. In a similar way the human learner employs 
useless and roundabout methods in the initial stages of the 
formation of any habit. The pupil in the school is no exception 
to this universal rule. It is impossible for the teacher so to 
instruct him that he shall from the start use only the most direct 
and economical methods of procedure. 

It is a condition of all learning, whether of the himian or the 
animal type, that it be based fundamentally on a superfluity of 
response. That is, many things are done that in themselves 
accomplish no beneficial result. For example, the novice in 
operating the typewriter strikes the wrong key almost as often as 
he does the right one, he makes unnecessary movements in 
striking the right key, and fumbles the keyboard in a very 
wasteful and uncertain way. If his movements were photo- 
graphed during the initial stages of his learning, they would 
resemble a tangled skein of yarn; but if a similar photograph 
were made when he has reached an expert stage, it would be 
found that his movements would be direct and relatively few. 
The snarl would have become untangled, and from what ap- 
peared to be a confused jumble, there would have emerged a 
definite and well-organized set of actions. If the learner is left 
to his own devices, he is sure to blunder along, using many 
useless motions time and time again, and perhaps in the end 
never learning how to perform the desired activity correctly. 
What is true of learning to operate the typewriter is equally true 
in learning any act of skill, or in fact in any form of learning 
whatsoever. 

To be convinced of this fact we need only to observe the common 
school activities. The pupil who is trying to follow a copy in his 
writing lesson is doing many things that are in themselves useless 
and wasteful. We have but to notice the contortions and grimaces 
of his face, the unnecessary movements of his trunk, shoulders, and 
arms, the awkward and uncertain strokes of his pen, to realize that 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 93 

his greatest need is to eliminate much that is random and uncertain 
in his attempts at writing. Similarly, if we observe a beginning class 
in French, we will see how the few happy hits, so to speak, in correct 
pronunciation are lost in scores of misses. The pupils in algebra, are 
doing many things, but often more are wrong than are right, and so 
it is with every subject in the curriculum. The beginning stages are 
characterized by a superfluity of physical and mental motions. — -"^ 

Methods of Restricting the Field of Trial and Error in 
Learning. — It is the problem of the teacher in guiding the pupil 
to master correctly some act of skill or some subject of knowl- 
edge to aid him in selecting from all his activities only those 
things that are valuable in perfecting him in the desired acquisi- 
tion. In other words, the function of the teacher is that of 
judiciously restricting for the learner the field of trial and error. 
This may be done in several ways. 

(a) The teacher must present to the pupil an effective copy. — 
In every subject there must be constantly before the pupil a 
specific standard of achievement. As this fact has been discussed 
somewhat in detail in the preceding chapter, it will be sufficient 
to amplify the topic here only in one particular, namely, — by 
considering the characteristics of an effective copy. 

Obviously such a copy must be correct. No teacher can hope to 
instruct a class in a foreign language by the direct method whose 
pronunciation is imperfect, and whose use of the language is 
halting and uncertain. As bad as the grammatical method is, 
the teacher who has not obtained a reasonable mastery of a 
language has no alternative but to resort to this unpsychological 
method of instruction. 

A young woman of good ability who had specialized in history and 
social science in her college course, but who had taken only a small 
amount of foreign language, taught during her initial year in 
a small high school where she was required to give instruction in 
various subjects, including first-year French. During her college 
course, she had heard much about the value of the direct method of 



194 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

language teaching. Consequently, she attempted to employ this 
method in her French class. She confused her pupils, because of her 
ignorance of the spoken language, and they soon formed the idea 
that she did not know her subject. This not only affected her in- 
struction, but also her discipline. Matters were becoming serious, 
and she was advised to change her method, and follow the grammar 
and exercise book. Immediately conditions improved, and by the 
end of the first semester, the class was doing work of a good grade, 
and the problem of discipline had entirely disappeared. 

Not only must the copy be correct; it must he clearly and 
-definitely presented. It is a common fault of teachers not to 
make clear enough just what they wish their pupils to do. If the 
teacher speaks indistinctly or so low that he cannot easily be 
heard, the pupils are not likely to make an effort to find out what 
he is saying. If he writes something for their instruction on the 
board, or shows them some object, or demonstrates to them a 
method of procedure, he must present these details in such a 
way that they will easily be seen. 

One of the most successful teachers in the writer's acquaintance is 
a high school instructor in physical science who devotes considerable 
time each day in devising plans for making his instruction pointed 
and clear-cut. He seldoms teaches a lesson which he has not pre- 
viously thought out with specific attention on those points which he 
wishes to illustrate. He is ingenious in devising illustrative ma- 
terials; he always speaks incisively, and with deliberation; he uses 
the blackboard to make every obscure point intelligible, and he in- 
sists that his pupils be concise and clear in their speech. The demon- 
strations that he performs before the class are gone over in advance 
of the lesson to make sure that they can be seen, and that they will 
work out as he has planned. 

^ Again, a copy must he not excessively difficult to imitate. In the 
manual arts, instructors seldom make the mistake of requiring 
pupils to construct something that is beyond their abilities. Not 
infrequently, however, teachers of the "academic subjects" set 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 1 95 

tasks that the majority of the class fail to do. The novice in 
teaching with his college standards fresh in mind is particularly 
prone to this mistake. 

As an illustration of the necessity of adapting standards of in- 
struction to the capacities of the learner, the writer recalls the in- 
stance of a man of great abiUty and scientific attainment, who failed 
absolutely as a high school instructor, for the sole reason that he 
carried over the content and method of the graduate school of the 
university to the high school. His pupils learned httle from him 
because of the fact that he could not readjust his ideas and practices 
to suit the high school situation. 

Finally, the copy must he one which the pupil desires to imitate. 
This principle is particularly important in setting up standards 
of conduct. The ''model pupil " is only a model when he is held 
in respect by his schoolmates. If he is without influence or is 
looked down upon by the pupils, he cannot affect beneficially 
the actions of his fellows. Standards of correct speech have 
often very little value, from the simple fact that pupils do not 
care whether they speak correctly or not. This is one of the 
reasons why it is so extremely difficult to inculcate in the average 
high school pupil proper habits of oral English. Unless pupils 
wish to speak correctly, it is practically impossible to drill them 
to do so. 

An efficient teacher of English who has succeeded in a rather marked 
way in improving the oral expression of his pupils does not attempt 
to correct all of the errors of speech that occur during the recitation. 
Attention is focused on the gravest and most frequent mistakes only. 
No large amount of time is spent during the class period in drilling 
pupils on correct forms, but whenever mistakes occur the teacher 
attempts to make the pupil concerned ashamed of his lapses. Since 
this instructor possesses tact and is liked by his pupils he is able to 
follow this method without arousing resentment. He has succeeded 
in developing in the class a spirit of pride in correct speech and a dis- 
taste for the most flagrant errors. 



196 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(b) The teacher must condition the environment of the pupil in 
such a manner that it will not be possible for him to go widely astray 
in his learning. — The pupil if left entirely without guidance, will 
stumble along in a most uncert in manner. His path must in a 
measure be marked out for him. In the laboratory he must be 
provided with proper materials and apparatus, if he is to get the 
desired results without an excessive waste of time. Instructors 
often allow their laboratory equipment to deteriorate. It is 
constantly out of order, and will never work satisfactorily. 
Similarly the instructor in the manual arts must see to it that the 
tools and materials to be used are in proper condition, and in 
their proper places. In text-book subjects, corresponding rules 
hold. 

A teacher of history who employs with his senior pupils the library 
method to some extent has made it succeed largely because he has 
systematized the procedure of finding topics in books and looking 
up authorities. One of his chief devices is a carefully constructed 
card-catalog, arranged according to a topical analysis. He has habit- 
uated his pupils in the use of this with very satisfactory results. 

(c) The teacher must encourage the pupil to think about what he 
is doing, and how he is doing it. — In a preceding paragraph in 
the present chapter, we have discussed the fact that attention is 
an important condition of correct habit-formation because it 
emphasizes the goal of the learner's efforts, and also the elements 
that enter in to make the habit perfect. Further, it is valuable 
as a preliminary means of determining the nature of the learning 
to be undertaken. It is worse than futile to plunge the pupil 
into a drill activity at that stage of learning when thought and 
careful observation are required. When the processes to be 
exercised are not well understood, when the means of getting 
results are not comprehended, then repetition is likely to be 
wrong, and the resulting practice may be harmful. It should be 
an invariable rule of the teacher carefully to develop and ex- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 197 

plain to the pupil all new processes, methods, and facts on which 
the pupil is to be drilled, and it should further be the aim of the 
instructor to lead the pupil to think for himself in regard to these 
things. 

The writer recently observed a class in algebra in which this fault 
was brought out. The teacher was drilling the pupils on fundamental 
processes in fractions. For the most part the exercise was effective, 
but it failed entirely at one point because the instructor failed to 
recognize that the slow and halting responses of the class were due 
to the fact that the pupils did not understand how to simplify certain 
expressions. The teacher, however, continued to insist on sheer 
repetition when explanation and illustration were required. 

In the discussion of the question of helping the pupil to limit 
the field of trial and error through giving him definite instruction 
as to what to do in specific instances, we are in danger of falling 
into one of two extremes; we are likely either to show and ex- 
plain too much or too little. If we explain too much, we are in 
danger of doing a large part of the work for him, and conse- 
quently what he does is in no real sense of the word his own, and 
since it is not his own, there is no genuine learning, only seeming 
learning. If we explain and show too little then the pupil 
stumbles along and often gets nowhere.^ 

This difficulty becomes at times a pressing one in the teaching of 
laboratory science. We cannot go into detailed explanations of just 
what the pupil should do in every phase of the experiment that he 
is to perform. He will get little real benefit out of a course conducted 
in this manner, if we wish to inculcate in him the fundamental 
ideals of scientific methods and procedure, or if we wish to make 
him resourceful in the further conduct of experimental work. On the 
other hand, if wc do not give him a reasonable amount of instruction 
and assistance, he will find the difficulties so great that he soon be- 
comes discouraged in regard to the work. A similar problem presents 

^ See Chapter XI., p. 240. 



igS INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

itself in the question of supervised study in the high school. The 
purpose of this is to direct the pupils in the methods that they should 
follow in getting their lessons, and to help them when they meet 
difficulties that are too great for them to overcome with a reasonable 
expenditure of time and effort. Here the rule should be to help pupils 
to the extent of showing them how to solve genuine difficulties, but 
not to the extent of doing the work for them. This matter will be 
discussed in greater detail in Chapter XVII. 

There is a great temptation on the part of teachers to do too 
much of the work of the pupil for him. In general the work goes 
so much more smoothly imder these conditions that it gives the 
impression of being done effectively, because the halting, stum- 
bling, and uncertainty of the pupil are practically eliminated. 
Further, it is so much easier in the initial stages of learning to do 
something for the learner than to show him how to do it for 
himself, that most teachers and parents are not willing to take 
the time or to employ the patience necessary to set the child on 
the right road, where he can gradually learn to accomplish by 
his own efforts those things that he should master for himself. 
It is one of the great merits of the Montessori system, that 
children are shown how to acquire simple habits through the 
teacher's directing their activities in such a way as to stimulate 
their initiative. 



CHAPTER X 

THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD.— ECONOMICAL METHODS OF 

DRILL 

Aspects of Drill that Further or Hinder Learning. — 
In Chapter VII. various aspects of classroom waste were dis- 
cussed. Here it was pointed out that the pupil may have 
wasteful methods of learning, and the instructor wasteful meth- 
ods of teaching, among which roundabout and unpsychological 
methods of drill play an important part. Detailed consideration 
of this topic was left, however, for elaboration at a later time. 
It is the purpose of the present chapter to consider this important 
aspect of the problem of economy in the lesson period from the 
standpoint of the principles underlying the psychology of habit- 
formation. Some of these principles have been discussed in the 
preceding chapter; others will be mentioned here, and their 
application to school procedure pointed out. As we progress in 
the discussion, we shall see that uneconomical methods of drill 
constitute one of the chief elements in the wastes that arise from 
school practices. For example, it is evident from what has 
already been said in Chapter DC., that drill which is a merely 
formal, and not a genuine mental, activity, that drill that is 
monotonous and irksome, that drill that is devoid of attention 
directed toward the proper aspects of the subject to be learned, 
that drill which is fluctuating and haphazard, that drill that is 
not properly supervised and directed, is likely to accomplish 
little. Under such unfavorable conditions small improvement 
is to be expected in ordinary school practice. Other conditions 
that affect learning are the following: — 

(a) The elements that are emphasized in drill must be associated 

199 



200 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

in their proper order. — Thorndike has emphasized the fact in 
his discussion of habit-formation that it is extremely important 
that the sequence of elements in an act of physical or mental skill 
should be the most direct, natural, and economical. In the first 
place a habit should be formed in the direction in which it is to be 
used. If you wish to say the alphabet from a to z, you must 
learn it in that direction. Try to repeat the alphabet backwards, 
if you have had no practice, and note the result. A direct appli- 
cation of this principle to the ordinary procedure of the high 
school is found in the learning of vocabularies of a foreign lan- 
guage. If the aim is to translate into English, then the order 
should be from the foreign word to its English equivalent; if the 
aim is to translate from English into the foreign language, then 
the reverse procedure is the more economical. It is a matter of 
common experience that pupils who can translate into English 
well, may do their work in composition poorly. One reason for 
this is to be found in the fact that a habit formed in one direction 
is not necessarily formed in the opposite. 

It should further be remembered that a habit that is to be 
used in many different situations should not be drilled in one 
^^pecific situation only. Thorndike states this principle as fol- 
^--lows, — " Form a habit in the way in which it is to be used." For 
example, it is not wise to drill upon tables in the fundamental 
operations in arithmetic. We should drill on the important 
number combinations as they arise in ordinary school practice, 
without particular reference to any formal arrangement. We 
use these combinations in no particular sequence in ordinary 
arithmetical operations; if we learn them in a definite order, 
then as a rule we recall them in the order learned, and this may 
often prove an extremely wasteful method. The child that is 
given the number combination 3x7 should be able instantly to 
respond 21 ; but if he is a slave to a table, he may be obliged to 
begin with 3x1, and go through the entire list until he reaches 
the proper combination. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 20I 

The most obvious application of this principle in the teaching of 
secondary school subjects is found in the languages. If the pupil 
has learned a language by the strictly logical and grammatical method, 
he is often obhged to go through his paradigms, before he can make a 
proper use of his forms. The procedure is then as follows: — The 
pupil is asked by the teacher to give the Latin equivalent of "they 
love." He begins by identifying the form as third person plural, 
present tense, indicative mood of the verb amare. When he has suc- 
ceeded in properly placing the form, then he starts with the first per- 
son indicative, amo, and continues, — amas, amat, amamus, amatis, 
amant. The waste here is clearly apparent. No one who has learned 
a language in this way alone can have fluency in its use. It will always 
be something of a puzzle to him. The principle applies not merely 
to the teaching of a foreign language, but obviously to some of the 
more grammatical methods of English instruction. The lack of econ- 
omy in such a procedure constitutes an important argimient for teach- 
ing a language largely by the so-called direct method, referred to in 
an earlier part of our discussions. It is one of the chief advantages 
of the direct method that words, idioms, and expressions in general 
are learned in connection with their use, and the formal aspects of 
the language are brought in incidentally and not as the chief means 
of acquiring skill in the language. It is a safe rule for the teacher of 
a language to follow which insists that the grammatical method, if 
used, shall be supplemented by drill in the language as it is actually 
spoken or written. 

It is also to be kept in mind that there is a proper sequence 
in w^hich the elements that enter into any habit should be taken 
up. There is a best possible order of learning. For example, in 
teaching the German language, is it desirable to introduce the 
pupil to WTiting the Schrijt from the start, or can this be ad- 
vantageously postponed until a later time? In studying a 
foreign language, should correct habits of grammatical usage and 
analysis be firmly established before translation is begun? In 
acquiring the fundamental principles in algebra, should one 
process be fully mastered in all of its details, before another is 



202 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

undertaken? In the answering of these and similar questions, no 
dogmatic reply should be given. H wever, certain guiding 
principles may be beneficially applied by the teacher in solving 
these problems. 

In the first place, the more interesting aspects of the subject 
should be taken up as soon as possible. This means, for example, 
that the pupil should soon begin to use a language in reading and 
in speaking, and should not have his interest killed, by a long and 
tedious drill on elements that he cannot use. This also means 
that in such subjects as the manual arts actual construction 
should not be delayed by many formal exercises. These facts 
have already been touched on in our discussions in regard to the 
function of interest in learning. 

In the second place, the less difficult elements in the learning 
should be given before the introduction of the more difficult. For 
example, it is a doubtful practice to introduce the study of a 
foreign language by long and intricate discussions of phonetics, 
and drills on the same. In Latin the use of conditional sen- 
tences, seldom found in the literature read during the earlier 
years of the course, should not be taught during the first year of 
study, as is at present frequently the case. In algebra the more 
complicated methods of factoring should be postponed until rela- 
tively late; in stenography the simple principles should be mas- 
tered without too much regard for method or formal order, 
and exceptions that are difficult may reasonably be brought in 
long after the more simple rules have been mastered; in English 
composition some of the refinements of diction may be omitted 
temporarily and the attention devoted to the more fundamental 
and more easily comprehended errors. The reasons why teach- 
ers and writers of texts have so often violated this rule of com- 
mon sense are two. As has been said previously, they have set 
up ideals of completeness and logical sequence that may be quite 
justifiable from the point of view of the subject, but are entirely 
at variance ^ot only with the findings of psychology in regard 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 203 

to the mind of the learner, but also with the observations of all 
who have given any thought to the nature of the child and the 
youth. 

In the third place, diffictdties shoidd not be introduced until 
fundamentals have been so mastered that the addition of new proces- 
ses will not interfere with the establishment of the old, and will not in 
turn be interfered with by the old still in process of formation. For 
example, it is clearly not desirable to trouble the pupil about 
rules of scansion in Latin verse, when he has not mastered vo- 
cabularies, forms and idioms sufficiently well to translate with 
fair ease; it would be folly to compel the learner to solve prob- 
lems in simple equations before he had mastered the mechanics 
of these operations; it would be useless to expect the novice to 
take general dictation in stenography before he had a con- 
siderable familiarity with outlines and logograms and practice 
in their use. 

Sometimes imposing a difficult habit on the learner before more 
simple habits have been fully learned, checks all further progress. 
This was clearly brought to the mind of the writer in an experiment 
conducted under the direction of the seminary of experimental edu- 
cation at Brown University. This experiment had as its object the 
determination of the learning curve of a subject who was learning to 
operate the linotype, a power machine used by type-setters and com- 
positors. The linot>'pe resembles in some particulars the typewTiter, 
but it is more complicated in its operation, and differs from the type- 
writer in several essentials. One of the most important of these is the 
necessity of "justifying the line" in composition on the linotype. 
"Justification" relates to the fact that the end of every line of printed 
matter must be in strict alignment with all the other lines on the 
page, or in the column. In order that each line shall be the proper 
length, the compositor must make an accurate and rapid judgment 
as he nears the end of the line as to how it is coming out, and then 
operate his machine accordingly. In the case of the learner whose 
curve of progress was being studied the attempt to justify the Hne 
was begun before some of the more simple habits of manipulation 



204 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

had been at all perfected, and as a result no further progress was 
made. After weeks of trial the learner, completely discouraged, gave 
up further attempts at mastering the technique of the machine. 

In the fourth place, those habits, the acquisition of which in the 
' proper order is essential to other habits later to be formed, must be 
early introduced It is obvious that some mastery of vocab- 
ularies must come before facility in translation is acquired, that a 
familiarity with some of the more important facts in history is 
necessary before there can be any skill in historical reasoning, 
that the knowledge of certain chemical formulae and drill in 
their use is imperative if the results of an experiment in the 
laboratory or a demonstration in the classroom are to be under- 
stood. This principle of learning cannot be violated, and satis- 
factory results follow. Unfortunately at times these habits that 
are fundamental to the formation of others may be difficult and 
uninteresting, and hence a conflict between this principle and 
those that have preceded may arise. However, the teacher must 
always consider in such cases relative values, and act not for- 
mally or blindly, but after careful consideration. 

Jjy the fifth place, any habit that must be dealt with in the initial 
stages of learning will be formed improperly if attention is not given 
to it from the beginning. For example, if the teacher does not 
insist on the correct pronunciation of words in French, German, 
Spanish, and Latin from the very first, improper pronunciation 
will soon become a habit, and it will be exceedingly difficult later 
to break it and form a correct habit in its place; if logical se- 
quences in demonstrations in geometry are not initiated in the 
first few lessons, they are likely never to be, and the habit of 
loose thinking in this subject will be established; if the proper 
position of the hands in learning to use the typewriter is not 
drilled on from the beginning, incorrect methods will be learned, 
and these cannot be broken later without enormous difficulty. 
On the other hand, it is not necessary to drill pupils continually 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 20$ 

in correct oral speech in order that their written discourse may 
be reasonably free from errors. 

(b) Unnecessary elements should not he introduced in a habits 
even with the intention of ultimately eliminating them. — ^This is 
another important principle in the economy of learning insisted 
upon by Thorndike. The child who is to learn quickly to 
multiply and divide fractions, must gain facility through meth- 
ods of rapid calculation such as cancellation, and should not 
first be taught a more cumbersome and roundabout method, 
such as reducing all the fractions to a common denominator, and 
,then multiplying or dividing the numerators. Neither should 
he be given elaborate practice in visualizing fractional relation- 
ships in performing simple exercises in fractions, for the very 
apparent reason that the process of visualization is a cumber- 
some and awkward method of manipulation, and one that must 
soon be dropped for another method of procedure, particularly 
when fractions of any complexity are to be dealt with. The 
principle of the elimination of unnecessary elements in habit- 
formation has several aspects. One maxim reads: — ^^Do not 
form a habit that must he broken later ^^^ an example of which is 
to be found in the school practice in regard to fractions, just dis- 
cussed. Another maxim reads: — ^^Do not introduce an element 
into the habit that is unnecessary in its exercised 

The best illustration of waste in the classroom due to the violation 
of this second maxim, as far as instruction in the high school is con- 
cerned, is again found in methods of language teaching. If the aim 
of instruction in a foreign language is abiHty to read and understand 
it, then the translation method as ordinarily employed is clearly 
uneconomical. In translation an association is formed between the 
foreign word, its English equivalent, and the meaning of the English 
word. What is required in order that a language may be understood 
is to associate the foreign word with the meaning. The additional 
association of the English word is unnecessary and wasteful. The 
person who can use a language well is able to " think in the language," 



2o6 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

as the phrase goes. Translation is uneconomical and often distorts 
the meaning of the language. In the writer's own case, he finds a 
marked difference in his use of German and of French. French he 
learned in the schools, and he is always obliged to translate into Eng- 
lish in order to get the meaning, while German he learned chiefly in 
Germany, and through the direct connection between words and 
their ideas. The difference in abiUty to use these two languages is 
marked, and cannot all be traced to the fact that greater practice was 
had in one than in the other. This is another argument for the use 
of the direct method of teaching language, if the aim of such teaching 
is primarily facility in the use of the language. For those that insist, 
however, that the chief value in language instruction is not to be 
found in acquiring the ability to speak, write, and read the language, 
but in the formal training that is incidental to the learning of the 
language, and in the added facility that is gained in understanding 
and using English, then these arguments in favor of the direct method 
of instruction will have little force, for by such persons it will be in- 
sisted that grammar must be taught, because grammar trains the 
pupil to think and discriminate, and that translation must be insisted 
on in order that the pupil may be trained in the use of Enghsh as well 
as in the use of the foreign language that he is studying. 

The maxim which enjoins the learner from forming a habit that 
must later be broken finds illustrations from the teaching of many 
subjects in the secondary school. Some examples of its violation are 
the following: — accustoming the pupil to study a history lesson from 
an outline prepared in advance by the teacher; drilling the pupil on 
outlines in stenography which cannot be economically employed 
when a stage of proficiency has been reached; habituating the pupil 
in Latin to look for the subject and predicate in a sentence, rather 
than requiring the pupil to read the sentence in the order in which it 
is written; insisting that the pupil shall write his themes with strict 
observance of the formal types of discourse, such as narration, de- 
scription, exposition, and argumentation, rather than accustoming 
him to tell what is in his mind in the most direct and practical way, 
bringing in these various forms of discourse as they naturally arise; 
and so on through a long list of school practices. The teacher should 
make it an unvarying rule to teach every subject in the way in which 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 207 

it is ultimately to be used, unless there is a very definite and justifiable 
reason for adopting an opposite procedure. 

(c) Habits must be formed in definite situations, they cannot be 
acquired in general. — It has long been a recognized principle in 
the psychology of learning that habits are specific in their na- 
ture. For example, ability to spell orally does not necessarily 
imply an equal ability to spell when the word is written or vice 
versa. Further, ability to spell correctly when one uses a pen or 
pencil does not mean that one will have an equal ability to spell 
when one uses the typewriter. In order to spell correctly under a 
given set of conditions, the learner must have had practice in 
spelling imder these conditions. 

This fact was vividly impressed on the author when he first began 
to use the typewriter. He found that his spelling suffered to a marked 
degree. Words that he had long been familiar with were written in 
most unusual ways. This fact was also called to his attention in 
attempting to determine the learning curve of the novice who was 
striving to master the linotype. The subject of the experiment had 
been employed as a proof-reader in a newspaper office, and was gener- 
ally considered a capable person. He had a good knowledge of spell- 
ing and punctuation. When he began to compose on the linotype, 
however, mistakes in spelling and punctuation were numerous. Evi- 
dently he did not possess an ability to spell and punctuate in general, 
although he did possess that ability when he read proof. 

As a further illustration of the fact that habits are formed in definite^ 
situations, and that similar habits must be formed over again in new '' 
situations, we need only to remember that ability to write English 
is often found in the English classes in school, and not in classes in 
history, science, and foreign language. The teacher who expects his 
pupils to write well in the subject in which he gives instruction must 
accustom them to proper writing in connection with that subject. 
He cannot be sure that the habits formed in the classes in English 
wiU carry over to work in other subjects. 

Teachers often make the mistake of supposing that activities 
that are called by the same name are essentially the same in the 



208 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

mind of the learner. To add means quite a different thing when 
it is the addition of numbers of one digit than when it is the 
addition of numbers of two or more; using grammatical English 
in a written exercise is different from using it when speaking; 
acquiring the problem attitude in algebra is a different matter 
from acquiring it in geometry; using constructive imagination 
in planning a design in manual training is not the same thing 
as using it in writing a story, or in designing scenery for a play. 
There is much waste in matters of drill because of the fact that 
these fundamental differences are not definitely understood by 
the teacher, and as a result it is often assumed that the pupil 
who has acquired facility in one kind of school practice has 
without further training a similar ability in a different kind of 
practice. The pupil often fails because he does not have the drill 
necessary to do the new task, which is erroneously assumed to be 
identical with the old. It is as uneconomical not to give drill 
when it is needed, as to require it when it is superfluous. 

The fact that habits are specific and that when formed in one 
situation they do not necessarily operate in others, raises the 
question of formal training, and its value as a main objective in 
teaching. This is a matter of no little importance to the second- 
ary school teacher, who must often ask himself questions like 
the following: — "Is my aim in teaching geometry to develop 
skill in logical reasoning?" "Shall I strive in this course in 
English to inculcate general habits of order and neatness?" 
" Can I hope in my laboratory classes to habituate the pupils in 
the methods of critical thought?" "May I expect that my in- 
struction in Latin will provide the learner with a general lin- 
guistic sense, which will be of value to him in all his language 
courses? " 

While no final answer can be given to such questions, it may 
be said that the advocates of special subjects of instruction in 
the high school have as a rule made extravagant and undemon- 
strated claims as to the general disciplinary values of these sub- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 209 

jects. The teacher should attempt to find in any subject that he 
teaches as many values as possible that inhere in the subject 
itself. In other words, he should teach the subject primarily for 
its content and practical values, and not for its value as a general 
training, in reasoning, discrimination, imagination, or what not. 
However, it is proper and desirable at times to emphasize these 
general values, and this can best be done by making the pupil 
conscious of them and eager to secure them. For example, a 
pupil will be much more likely to carry over from his course in 
physics the conception of the scientific method to other fields of 
life and apply it in these new fields, if he understands what this 
method really signifies and possesses the desire to employ it 
whenever it is possible. Likewise rigor in reasoning that is 
developed in mathematics may or may not be utilized in other 
school subjects. The pupil who finds such reasoning helpful, 
and who has an idea of its general utility, will be aided in his 
methods of reasoning in whatever field he may find the need for 
such reasoning. It is a function of the teacher to explain general 
methods and to create ideals of work. The question of disci- 
plinary values will be further discussed in Chapters XIII and 
XVI} 

(d) There are definite limits to possible and desired proficiency 
in any given habit or set of habits. — It is one of the most obvious 
facts in the psychology of learning that there are certain limits 
of improvability. Some of these limits are set by the desire 
and ability of the learner, others are in a measure determined 
by the difficulty of the subject-matter, and still others are condi- 
tioned by practical considerations. To attempt to drill the 
pupil beyond these possible and desirable limits of improvability 
is clearly a waste. It is perfectly obvious that if a pupil has no 
capacity for learning a foreign language, or is so little interested 
that he makes no honest effort, drill can accomplish nothing 
valuable for him. One of the most discouraging duties of many 
1 See pp. 275, 276, 338, 339. 



2IO INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

high school teachers is that of conducting a class of repeaters. 
Going over the subject a second time is as a rule as great a 
failure as was the initial attempt. School programs should be 
sufficiently flexible to permit a pupil who has failed in one 
subject to take something in its place for which he is likely to 
have greater ability and interest. 

This problem is a fairly simple one as far as elective subjects are 
concerned. It becomes more difficult when there are specific require- 
ments. For example, if a pupil has definitely failed in his first year 
of Latin, and wishes to enter a college that requires it, then he must 
take the subject over again if he is ultimately to succeed; if his aim 
is to prepare for a technical school, then he must finally pass in his 
mathematics, and so on. In cases where such pupils show general 
ability, and have a desire to carry out their plans, repetition may at 
length produce results. If they have no ability in general and little 
desire, this is fair evidence that they are not fitted for the career that 
they have selected, and it wiU be much more economical for them 
and for the school if they select another career in which the chances 
of success seem greater. 

There are some subjects, of which English is the most conspicuous 
example, with which aU secondary pupils must have a reasonable 
acquaintance whatever their careers in life are to be. If pupils fail 
in such a subject, are we not forced to drill them, and drill them again, 
never mind how slight their capacities, or how weak their interests? 
The answer to this question is not an easy one, yet it is perfectly 
obvious if the learner has reached his limit of improvement, that it 
is of no use to attempt to go further with him, never mind how de- 
sirable greater proficiency may be. If we are certain that a pupil 
can make no further advance in English, but can do something in 
the manual arts, then no abstract notion of what an education ought 
to be should prevent us from allowing the pupil to do what he can 
do, and to give up what he cannot accomplish. However, we must 
be sure of our ground in the first place before taking so radical a step. 
It may often happen that a pupil who fails in one phase of a subject 
so complex as EngUsh may find other aspects of it in which he may do 
better. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 211 

There are certain subjects so difficult for the high school 
pupil that high degrees of proficiency should not be expected. 
The drill should be conducted in connection with the more 
simple parts of the subject, and the more difficult materials 
reserved until a later date. This is true in many instances of 
the more advanced work in algebra and in science. The rule 
here should be to require that which can reasonably be done, 
to be done well, but not to expect that the more difficult aspects 
of the subject be mastered. Of course, this mastery may be 
possible with an excessive amount of drill, but this additional 
drill would cause a relative waste when we take into account the 
importance of other subjects to which adequate time for mas- 
tery should be given. 

It is not an uncommon thing to find a high school teacher, particu- 
larly the young teacher fresh from college, demanding an over-refine- 
ment of subject-matter not warranted under the conditions. I re- 
member in particular a class in French in which the teacher spent a 
large amount of time in drilling the pupils on certain difficulties in 
idioms that were hard to master and were not often encountered. In 
another class a teacher of English was insisting on the mastery of 
ultra fine distinctions in the use of words which the pupils could com- 
prehend only with difficulty, and for which they would probably never 
have any use in after life. In a third class a teacher of history was 
attempting to familiarize his pupils with the intricacies of the Athenian 
constitution, and making relatively Httle progress. Clearly his labor 
was not worth the pains. The teacher of every high school subject 
should attempt to determine with as great accuracy as possible 
the parts of the subject that can be mastered by the pupil of 
fair ability and reasonable industry in the amount of time that 
is at the learner's disposal, and from such pupils the teacher should 
not expect more. Of course it is not only possible, but generally 
desirable to require of the superior pupil a greater attainment, 
and to set relatively low standards for the dull and backward. 
To this extent, at least, should the teacher allow for individual 
differences. 



212 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

There aje many subjects in the curriculum in which we should 
not expect high proficiency, because such proficiency is not 
particularly important. It might be possible to make all pupils 
expert penmen, but would it be worth the while to drill them 
to the "saturation point of efficiency" in a skilful act of this 
nature? It would be of greater service to most persons if they 
were given some practice in the use of the typewriter. In many 
high school subjects the amount of proficiency required can be 
determined not by the subject as such, or by any academic 
conceptions of its logical development. The amount of skill 
that should be expected and the amount of consequent practice 
that should be demanded must be fixed by the practical objec- 
tives or aims which are the justification for teaching the subject. 

It is important, for example, that pupils who have a high school 
education should spell with reasonable accuracy, and for this reason 
drill in spelling should not end with the elementary school. However, 
it is not desirable that this drill should be conducted to the point of 
turning out "champion spellers." What we desire is that high school 
graduates should spell the words that they use in their written exer- 
cises correctly. We have little interest in the question as to whether 
they can spell words which they will never use in their daily work. 

Often the amount of proficiency that is to be demanded in a sub- 
ject is determined by whether it is taught as a subject of general 
knowledge and skill, or as a semi-vocational, or a vocational subject. 
Clearly a higher degree of skill is to be demanded in stenography, if 
the course is taken as a purely commercial subject, than in algebra 
that is pursued for quite different reasons. If the pupil in algebra 
has mastered some of the more elementary processes, so that he can 
use them with reasonable rapidity and accuracy, and has acquired a 
fair conception of the nature of the subject, he has perhaps followed 
it as far as desirable in the majority of instances. If the pupil in 
stenography is fitting himseh to enter an office on graduation from the 
high school, then clearly he must have sufficient proficiency to take 
ordinary business dictation. 

There are some subjects of secondary instruction that should be 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 213 

carried to a considerable degree of proficiency for the simple reason 
that if this proficiency is not attained, all which has gone before is of 
little value. It is probably true that most pupils in the high school 
would get vastly more out of a foreign language if they would pursue 
it until they could use it, either to speak and write it or to read it. 
Such proficiency cannot be acquired, however, without long and 
intensive practice. For this reason it would be much better for a 
pupil to take one foreign language for four years (if possible in a junior 
and senior high school course for six) than to take two or three lan- 
guages for shorter periods. It seems a great pity that most pupils 
who take foreign languages in our high schools, and indeed many who 
continue them as college students, get no real practical ability in 
their use. The alleged discipUnary and cultural values that are sup- 
posed to attach themselves to the study of these subjects are so un- 
certain and mythical, that they cannot justify instruction in them 
for these ends alone. 



(e) Drill to be economical must he individual in its character. — 
One of the greatest wastes in drill exercises arises from a lack 
of the recognition of this principle. Pupils who are drilled 
en masse are often given practice when they have no need of it, 
and on the other hand are many times not afforded the drill 
which is essential to thei^ progress. This is one of the reasons 
that make drill as a classroom exercise so difficult, and often 
so worthless. We find a violation of this principle wherever we 
turn. If we adopted and carried out the maxim, — ''Drill all 
■pupils in terms of their abilities and according to their needs, ''^ we 
should inaugurate in our schools of every grade something little 
short of an educational revolution, but nowhere in our whole 
system of instruction should we find it bearing more beneficial 
fruits than in the field of high school education; and nowhere 
in the field of high school subjects should we find more far-reach- 
ing consequences than in that of the teaching of English expres- 
sion. 

Pupils enter the high school with greatly varjdng abilities in 



214 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

their use of written and spoken English. A part of this differ- 
ence in abiUty is due to the fact that they have different capaci- 
ties, but in a great measure these differences are caused by the 
training that they have received in the home. This is particu- 
larly true of spoken EngHsh. Those children that come from 
homes of culture know how to speak correctly because they 
have been brought up in an environment where correct speech 
is the fashion. It is a waste of time to drill these pupils on cer- 
tain forms of expression that they have already mastered. On 
the other hand, many high school children have been surrounded 
all of their lives by persons who could not speak English with 
any degree of accuracy. They have not infrequently been reared 
in illiterate families. They need constant instruction in the 
correct forms of speech, and unless they receive such instruction 
they will continue in^all probability to use poor English all of 
their lives, no matter what their attainments in general may be. 

It is obvious that the pupils who need intensive drill in spoken 
English cannot be given this drill in the ordinary class period. In the 
first place, the time is so limited that but a small amount of practice 
is possible, an amount that would not be of much value on the whole. 
In the second place, the time taken to drill these individual pupils, 
if it were taken during the class period, would deprive other pupils 
of the attention that should be given them, and hence such drill 
could not be justified. If drill is to be given it should be provided 
for outside of the regular recitation. 

One of the chief difiiculties that confront the teacher of oral Eng- 
lish expression is found in the fact that outside of the schoolroom 
the pupil who has incorrect habits of speech is falling back into wrong 
usage in conversation with his playmates and elders. As was pointed 
out in Chapter IX., consistency of response is a prime essential of 
correct habit-formation. The learner who is constantly lapsing into 
wrong usage can hope to make but little progress in the direction of 
correct expression. Thus it is that the task of the teacher who aims 
to correct the oral expression of those pupils whose environment out- 
side of Jae school is illiterate, is well-nigh impossible. He cannot ac- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 215 

complish much more than to correct a few of the grosser errors. On 
the whole, the best that can be done, as we have already said, is to 
inspire in the minds of his class the desire to speak correctly and to 
give to his class some standards by which correct speech can be meas- 
ured, and then leave it to individuals to correct their own errors 
and to practice in right usage until it becomes for them second 
nature. 

The following incident illustrates the potency of desire in correct 
habit-formation. An English woman who came to this country as 
a domestic, with rare exceptions spoke good English, only occasionally 
when excited, dropping her H's. Her employer was curious to find 
out the reason for this. "Mary," he said, "why is it that you so 
seldom drop your H's; the people you lived with in England do, do 
they not?" "They do, sir," was the reply, "but in my case when 
I was a girl in school the teacher impressed me with the fact that it 
was a fine thing to speak good EngHsh. She made me wish to talk 
properly, and after that I always corrected %yself when I made a 
mistake. I taught myself to speak well." 

The fact that drill should be largely an individual matter 
suggests the desirability of having drill groups that are distinct 
from the ordinary recitation groups. To these drill groups 
should be sent pupils who are below the standard in proficiency 
in various school subjects. For example, if a high school pupil 
is found by his teacher to be deficient in spelling, he should be 
placed in a drill section that is devoted to this subject, and he 
should be made to practice on the words that he has not mas- 
tered. Similarly, if he is behind the group in his knowledge of 
essential facts in history, if he lacks the required facility in 
translation in a foreign language, if he blunders along in 
the fundamental processes of algebra, he should be given 
the drill that wall make it possible for him to continue the sub- 
ject with profit to hunself and the class. No pupil can do 
good work who has not mastered the essential elements in 
the work that he has already taken up. It is impossible to do 
justice to a class as a whole when some are ready to advance 



2l6 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

rapidly and when others are incapable of further progress be- 
cause they have not done well the work that has gone before. 

Drill groups should be formed for every subject in the high 
school curriculum. These groups should be supervised by 
teachers of experience, who should work with the group as a 
whole as far as they have common difficulties, and with indi- 
viduals as far as the difficulties are peculiar. For example, if 
a pupil fails to spell correctly a certain definite list of words, 
he should be given practice on this list and not on a list including 
words that he already knows how to spell. It is a clear waste of 
time to drill the learner on something that does not need drill. 
This fact leads to a further miportant principle relating to eco- 
nomical methods of drill, namely, — that in order to attend to 
the individual needs of pupils careful consideration must be 
given to the exact nature of the pupil's difficulties. This means, 
as we have already seen in an earlier part of our discussion,^ 
that the teacher must have some method of determining the 
nature and direction of the pupil's errors. 

A lack of consideration of the needs of the individual in this 
connection results often in drilling the few at the expense of the 
many J the most serious source of waste in most classroom exer- 
cises. Likewise, individual oral drill ignores the needs of the 
group and centers the entire activity of the recitation period 
teniporarily around one pupil. In Chapter VIII. the fact was 
emphasized that a written test for knowledge is more eco- 
nomical than an oral test. Similarly, a written drill exercise is 
more economical than an oral drill exercise. As a rule, it is 
indefensible to drill a single pupil for any length of time when 
the rest of the class are practically inactive. In the ordinary 
"recitation hearing" which is the bane of so much of our instruc- 
tion in the high school, this is not an infrequent practice in 
some form or other. A pupil is called upon to recite. He makes 
some error and is corrected perhaps several times before his 
^ See Chapter VIII., pp. 153, 154. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 217 

perfonnance is considered satisfactory by the teacher. During 
this interval, the rest of the class are getting nothing out of the 
recitation. If this process is continued with each member of the 
class, we find that the recitation is reduced in efficiency to such 
an extent that not ten per cent, of what could be done is ac- 
complished. 

One of the most striking instances of waste from this source that 
has come to the writer's attention was that of a class in English con- 
ducted by a teacher of experience, who stated that his chief aim in the 
course was to drill the pupils in correct and distinct enunciation. To 
this end, he compelled every pupil to repeat his statements until they 
were in a satisfactory form. The particular class observed was read- 
ing a play of Shakespeare, but the insistence of the teacher on the 
correct expression of his pupils resulted in a total lack of considera- 
tion of the play itself, in return for which each member of the class 
was given one and one-haK minutes of drill during the entire period, 
and obtained little else worth while from the recitation. 

There are abundant examples of the opposite practice, however. 
Indeed, teachers at times go to the extreme of ignoring the most 
common errors of speech. A middle course is desirable. One teacher 
of English makes it a rule to require those pupils who habitually use 
such expressions as done for did, set for sit, don't for doesn't, and 
them for those, to remain after school and practice on the correct 
forms. During the class exercise the most obvious violations of 
proper usage are pointed out, but the pupils making the errors are 
given drill individually or in small groups, and not at the expense of 
the class as a whole. 

Formal oral drill is most commonly found in pronunciation 
exercises in courses in foreign language and in the so-called oral 
composition in English. In a foreign language, it seems neces- 
sary that the pupil should be able to acquire a reasonably cor- 
rect pronunciation. It is an almost hopeless task to do this, 
however, through individual drill in the classroom. For this 
reason oral drill in concert is often resorted to. Though this 



2l8 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

method of oral drill is more economical than individual oral 
drill, it has certain obvious defects, as has been pointed out in 
Chapter IX. As a rule in concert drills, there are a few who 
are actively engaged in the exercise, while the remainder lag 
behind and follow in a perfunctory way. Indeed, some merely 
make their lips move, without actually using their vocal organs, 
and the practice that they obtain from such an exercise is of 
no value. To obtain any genuine drill from an exercise in 
pronunciation the attention of the learner must be focused on 
the exercise, and he must himself have in mind the words and 
express them. Passive imitation is here of little avail. Again 
in concert drills the teacher has no opportunity to discover in- 
dividual errors and to correct them. 

The best method of drilling in pronunciation in a foreign language 
is by the use of the phonograph. In the first place, the records are 
made by persons who have absolutely accurate and distinct speech. 
Again, the learner can repeat any part of the record as many times as 
he desires, and can constantly compare his efforts with the record. 
Further, he can do this by himself, and he is not so hkely to be dis- 
turbed, as if he were practicing before his classmates. In the well- 
equipped school there should be several small rooms in which such 
phonographs can be placed, and pupils should be assigned a certain 
number of minutes each day in which to practice correct pronuncia- 
tion. This should be considered as necessary a part of the course, 
as are laboratory exercises considered a necessary part of a course 
in physics or chemistry. 

In recent years we have heard a great deal concerning the 
desirability of oral composition in coiu'ses in English. It is 
urged, and with a good degree of justice, that the average in- 
dividual writes little, though he speaks a great deal, and that it 
is therefore more important to train the pupil in oral expression 
than in written expression. Some teachers have devoted a 
considerable part of the total time allotted to class work to 
formal oral exercises. Pupils are assigned topics and give an 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 219 

oral presentation of these topics in the class. Doubtless this 
sort of work is of value if it can be conducted properly. It must 
be remembered, however, that each pupil can get but a small 
amount of practice in such exercises, and further that the class 
as a whole may get practically no benefit from the exercise. 

Let us take an example in an extreme form of the practice in oral 
expression where the general waste is enormous. The class under 
consideration is one in English numbering twenty-seven members. 
The teacher devotes one hour a week to drill in declamation. Each 
pupil is allowed five minutes for the exercise. Consequently in a 
forty-five minute period a pupil gets the opportunity to declaim be- 
fore the class once in three weeks, and in the course of the year ap- 
proximately twelve times, possibly thirteen. This gives him an 
hour's practice. This amount of practice is cut down, however, by 
the fact that during the course of the exercise in declamation, time 
is taken for criticism and correction of errors, so that on the average 
not more than five pupils declaim during a single period, and this 
reduces the total amount of drill received by each pupil to less than 
forty minutes during the year, an amount so small that Httle improve- 
ment can be expected under such conditions. On the other hand, 
the class as a whole has been deprived of nearly thirty hours of in- 
struction, and has received little benefit from Hstening to the others 
declaim. The only benefit that the class has received is from such 
criticisms of the various declamations as are important for the class 
to consider. Consequently, while in the course of the year, the class 
should have received during this period approximately thirty hours 
of instruction, it has under the most favorable conditions received 
not more than one-third of that amount, probably even less in most 
instances. 

There are two conditions under which formal oral composi- 
tions are allowable as class exercises. One of these is when the 
content of the composition is something which is of value to the 
class to know, and which the class as a whole is required to 
utilize in its work; and the second is when the criticisms that 
are brought out in regard to the presentation of individual 



220 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

pupils are criticisms of general value and are actively partici- 
pated in by the class. 

An illustration of these conditions in force in actual school prac- 
tice will make the underlying principles more definite. The class 
under consideration is composed of twenty-three members in the 
senior year in the high school. Although it is a course in English the 
teacher chooses the topics to be presented mainly from the field of 
other school subjects. Pupils according to their interests, knowledge, 
and abilities, are given topics relating to current events, community 
happenings, important scientific topics of immediate interest, and 
the like. It is the aim of the instructor to allow no topic to be pre- 
sented that is not of general educational value, and so to supervise 
the work of the pupils that these topics will be presented in a clear 
and comprehensible form. Further than this, the pupils are required 
to take notes and hand in later a written statement of the important 
facts presented. They are also expected to consider the form of the 
presentation and to criticise it intelligently. In this way, each mem- 
ber of the class is kept mentally active during the entire period, and 
the attention is directed toward something that is worth while. Thus, 
the waste of individual drill is reduced to a minimum. Such work 
as this can easily be done in various subjects of the high school curric- 
ulum. Indeed, oral and written expression should be cultivated prin- 
cipally in connection with those courses in which the practical need 
for such expression arises, and should not be left merely as formal 
exercises to be conducted by the teacher of English. In the coopera- 
tive class, spoken of at various times in the course of our discussions, 
there is a splendid opportunity for training in oral expression. Under 
such conditions there is a minimum of waste, and a maximum of 
general benefit. 

Maxims of Economical Drill. — In the discussions of the pres- 
ent and of the preceding chapter we have considered the chief 
laws of correct habit-formation, and the main sources of waste 
in drill. The facts and principles here stated and considered 
lie at the basis of the economy and technique of learning and 
of teaching. The more important of these by way of final 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 221 

summary and emphasis may be stated in the form of maxims 
of effective drill. They read as follows: — 

(a) No learning can take place without practice^ but mere prac- 
tice is not sufficient. — The practice must be actual, not purely 
objective and formal; it must be conducted in such a way that 
the learner knows the object of his achievement, desires to at- 
tain this object, and knows when the object has been attained; 
the object must be attainable when effort is reasonably vigorous 
and sustained; the process by which the object is attained 
should be made as free from grind as possible; the learner should 
know sufficiently the details of the process to recognize when 
he is going right and when he is going wrong; in other words 
blind trial and error should be reduced to a minimum, or stated 
in another way, practice must be the right practice to produce 
results. 

(b) The practice, if it is right practice, must be uniform and 
constant. — ^There can be no lapses into old and wrong methods. 
In those school subjects in which the practice outside of the 
classroom tends to differ from that within, drill is often futile, 
always unsatisfactory. 

(c) Habits should be formed in the way in which they are to 
be used. — They should be formed both in the right direction and 
in the right connections. The teacher of language especially 
needs to consider these facts and to apply them. 

(d) Superfluous habits should never be initiated if they can pos- 
sibly be avoided, a7zd if initiated should be eliminated as soon as 
possible. — Roundabout methods of procedure may at times be 
used in order to show the pupil the reason for a certain process, 
but such methods should never be practiced. The most eco- 
nomical and direct means of getting the desired result should 
always be applied. This principle is of particular importance 
for the teachers of language and of mathematics. 

(e) Habits shoidd be formed in the psychological rather than 
in a logical order. — As far as it is possible, the learner should 



222 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

begin with those things that are most simple, easy, and interest- 
ing for him. The more complex and difficult elements should 
be postponed until the more simple are mastered. For this 
reason the formal, grammatical, and logical methods of teach- 
ing language are often a failure. 

(f) In the early stages of habit-formation ^ progress should he 
relatively deliberate. — Haste makes waste. No learner can ad- 
vance to the more difficult stages of acquisition, when he has 
not mastered the initial stages. 

(g) Habits formed in one kind of activity do not necessarily 
carry over to another kind of activity, even when the similarity be- 
tween the two activities is pronounced. — For this reason the 
teacher who wishes that a habit be set up in some particular 
field must see to it that the habit is actually functioning in this 
field, and not assume that it does so function because a habit 
called by the same name has been acquired in another field. 
For this reason, too, the teacher should aim to practice the 
habit in the field in which it is to be used. 

(h) Not all habits should be practiced until expert skill is 
reached. — In most subjects in the curriculum a reasonable knowl- 
edge and a partial skill are all that should be desired or can be- 
achieved without undue expenditure of time and of energy. The 
limits of perfection in any habit are practical limits. 

(i) Drill in habit-formation should be directed to the needs of 
the individual. — For this reason general class drills are often 
wasteful; each pupil should be treated according to his individual 
needs. 

(j) The few should never be drilled at the expense of the many. — 
This is a maxim that every teacher should constantly keep in 
mind. Its frequent violation results in tremendous losses and 
reduces the efficiency of instruction often many fold. 

(k) The teacher must constantly supervise the initiation and the 
perfection of habit. — ^The teacher must know definitely what the 
pupil is doing, where he is succeeding and where he is failing; 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 223 

the teacher must direct, encourage, and aid him constantly; 
undirected, and haphazard drill is often worse than useless. 
One of the chief functions of the teacher should be to show the 
pupil how to study, and so to direct him that he forms eco- 
nomical habits of study. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD — ADDING NEW KNOWLEDGE 
THROUGH ORAL AND BOOK INSTRUCTION 

In the preceding chapters on the methods of the class period, 
we have discussed the question of the test for knowledge in its 
various forms, and have considered further the nature, function, 
and limitations of drill. In the present chapter, and in those 
immediately following, we shall take up the problem of impart- 
ing new knowledge during the class period, and shall consider 
in the first place, oral instruction, or the "telling method," as 
it is sometimes termed. 

The Nature of the Telling Method.— The telling method of 
instruction, as the name implies, consists in the imparting of in- 
formation orally by the teacher to the class. It ranges from 
the formal lecture, on the one hand, to brief bits of information 
and comment, on the other, — given out by the teacher during 
the course of an ordinary recitation. The formal lecture has 
but a small place in the high school, and as a rule should not be 
encouraged. On the other hand, brief comments and explana- 
tions by the teacher are extremely common, and in many in- 
stances take up a large part of the class period. Often this 
latter form of the telling method is as faulty as the former. The 
lecture method suffers from the fact that it is too set in composi- 
tion and presentation; the method that employs comment and 
incidental explanation is, as a rule, too fragmentary and ill 
considered. The explctnations may be cumbersome and diffi- 
cult for the class to understand; frequently they are not well 
thought out, and are at times related to no definite aim or plan 
of instruction. (The teacher should prepare with care the main 

224 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 225 

statements that he is to make to the class, make sure that they 
are framed in simple language, and that they are reasonably 
brief and direct^ 

Comments and explanations are generally interspersed with 
the questions asked by the teacher, or are of the nature of cor- 
rections and suggestions offered during the course of a recitation. 
As a rule they are too frequent. In both questioning and com- 
ment many teachers consume altogether too much of the time 
of the class. 

The first detailed study of the part that the teacher takes during 
the ordinary recitation was investigated by Dr. Romiett Stevens ^ 
and reported in a monograph in which stenographic reports of class 
procedure form the basis of the discussion. One of the general re- 
sults of the investigation was that many teachers take far too large a 
part of the time of the class period, and leave but a small part of it 
to the pupils. Although the investigation concerned largely instruc- 
tion in the form of questions, numerous examples are given of the 
comments of teachers on the replies of pupils, and of incidental infor- 
mation given out in a more or less haphazard way during the progress 
of the instruction. A few examples of such comments will serve to 
show the general nature of instruction of this type. 

In discussing the fate of Andre and the treason of Arnold, the 
teacher is moved to remark: "Perhaps Arnold is not open to as much 
criticism there as you may think. He went to General Clinton and 
offered to surrender himself. When you consider how he got his 
command at West Point, you will find there the worst point in his 
whole career. He got the command from his best friend Washington; 
the betrayal was not only a betrayal of America, but of his best friend, 
and Washington felt the disgrace perhaps even more than Arnold 
himself." Again: "A congressional investigation cannot be justified 
unless the charges are serious. Now the charges against Arnold in 
his Philadelphia career were of a petty sort; he was charged with 
embezzling funds entrusted to him, and the charge that he had used 

1 The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction, Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University ContrihiUions to Education, No. 48 (191 2). 



226 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

an army wagon was not enough to disgrace him before the country." 
The chief objection to such statements as the above is not primarily 
as to their form, or value as bits of information. A few statements 
like these, well phrased, and made with deliberation at important 
points in the progress of the recitation are hclpfid. When a large 
number of such statements, however, are found, as appears to have 
been the case in this particular recitation in American history, they 
are presented in such a hurried and ill-considered manner that they 
make practically no impression on the mind of tlie pupil, and are 
consequently a great source of waste. 

A serious waste in class instruction is found in the rambling 
comment of the instructor. An idea or a fact is suggested, which 
the teacher takes up and develops without particular thought 
as to where it is leading, or as to its general bearing on the lesson 
as a whole. The following illustration wall serve to point out 
the defect in such a procedure: 

In a class in Roman history the question of representative govern- 
ment was raised. The teacher first explained what representative 
government meant, and for this there was ample justification, but 
he was not satisfied to make his point, and next discussed representa- 
tion in the House and Senate in the government of the United States; 
this was followed by a statement of how the representatives are 
chosen, and of the number of states in the Union. This comment 
concluded with an inquiry as to what state was last admitted into 
the Union. The whole procedure occupied five minutes, and the last 
three topics had no significant relation to the question that started 
tlie discussion. 

While rambling discussions of this type are not infrequent they 
are surely not the rule. The writer has observed many classes in 
which the teacher witli great care and skill has held the discussion to 
the main issue, and has refused to be sidetracked, by any irrelevant 
consideration, no matter how interesting or important in itself. 
^Teachers are aided in avoiding rambling and discursive presentation 
' by prescribing definite time limits to the various parts of the lesson. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 227 

Such an allotment of time is an important function of the lesson plan, 
discussed in Chapter XVI. 

Faults of the Telling Method. — In addition to the fault of 
superfluous, hasty, ramljling, and poorly thought-out oral in- 
struction discussed in the preceding paragraphs, there are cer- 
tain disadvantages in the telling method as such, defects that 
inhere in it whether the form in which it is cast is correct or not, 
and whether the information is worth while and pertinent 
or the opposite. The chief of these defects are: — 

(a) The telling method is time-consuming. — It is clear that no 
advantage is gained and much time is lost during the class 
period when the pupil is given extended information which 
he can easily find in books, and readily comprehend. Although 
the telling method should supplement book instruction, adding 
to and making clear what the printed page contains, it should 
never be a mere repetition of the book. 

This rule should not be carried to the extreme, however, of always 
compelling the pupil to look up in books something that may be told 
to him in a few direct words by the teacher. It is a common fault 
of instructors in English to send pupils to dictionaries and lexicons to 
look up and explain words, phrases, and allusions. At times teachers 
require as a part of the preparation of the daily lesson the writing 
out of the derivation and meaning of a list of English words. This 
procedure is justified when it saves the pupU and the class an appre- 
ciable amount of time, when a greater impression is made on the 
mind of the pupil than would be made if the facts were told him, or 
when it is the desire to give the pupil experience in the use of a dic- 
tionary or a lexicon. The practice of telling the pupil to look up an 
interesting point that has been raised in the class is generally not to 
be defended. It is a decided advantage to furnish the information 
when it is desired. If this is postponed, the value of the fact and its 
bearing is often entirely lost. 

The writer has in mind an unusually successful teacher of English 
who made it a custom to provide the class during the assignment 



228 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

with the most essential facts required in the preparation of the new 
lesson. She passed out mimeographed sheets that gave information 
on difl&cult points and explanations of obscure passages. The teacher 
estimated that this method saved on the average twenty-five minutes 
of the time of each pupil in the preparation of the assigned lesson. 
This time was employed to advantage in other ways. 

(b) The telling method often gives the teacher a false idea of his 
skill in class ifistruction. — If an instructor's manner of speaking 
is vital and agreeable, he generally receives apparent attention. 
He therefore gets the idea that he is doing well with his class. 
The real test of teaching ability is found when the teacher at- 
tempts to direct his pupils and develop in them the powers of 
initiative and response. It is a simple matter to tell a class a 
fact or to explain to them some principle. It is a vastly dif- 
ferent matter to make them comprehend it. 

(c) The telling method lacks a permanent record. — One of the 
chief advantages of the printed word lies in tlie fact that the 
ideas expressed are permanently preserved, and can be con- 
tinually referred to for verification. The pupil who does not 
understand the meaning of his text on the first reading, can 
read the diflicult parts over and over until the meaning is clear. 
On the other hand, the hearer must comprehend the spoken 
word at once or else miss its meaning. Further, as his memory 
fades tliere is no chance for reference and verification. For 
this reason, teachers who present topics in oral form should, 
when possible, furnish a printed or mimeographed outline of 
the important points, or require the pupils to take notes as to 
what has been said. 

The Technique of Note-taking is Extremely Important. — 
As a rule, pupils of the high school grade have little idea how 
to take notes, and indeed college students are generally deficient 
in this aspect of their work. Note-taking is important for two 
main reasons. In tlie first place, through the notes the hearer 
has preserved in a permanent form that information that has 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 229 

been given him orally, and in the second place through the 
exercise in taking and arranging his notes he has reacted to the 
oral lesson. This second [)hase of the note-taking activity gives 
it its chief value. So important is the matter of taking notes 
that we can with advantage consider the most essential prin- 
ciples involved in this form of instruction. 

(a) Notes should not be taken in the form of dictation. — As has 
been pointed out in the chapter on Waste in the Classroom, 
the verbatim taking of notes is extremely wasteful, and cannot 
be justified as an ordinary method of class instruction. 

(b) The pupil should not be required to take voluminous notes. — 
Akin to the fault of requiring the pupil to take down the spoken 
words of the lecturer verbatim is that of expecting him to take 
down detailed and extended excerpts of what he hears. If this 
is required the pupil is busy for the entire period of the exercise 
in the mere technique of note-taking, and consequently has no 
opportunity to give attentive consideration to what the speaker 
is saying, or to weigh the relative importance of the matters 
discussed. Hence, the chief value of the oral lesson is lost. 

(c) The pupil should be required to jot down the main facts of 
the lecture or discussion, and as soon as possible after the recitation 
write out in proper form these facts. — It is important to accustom 
the pupil to the practice of giving careful attention to class dis- 
cussions, and to the words of the teacher, and to make brief 
notes of the important facts brought out. These should be 
written up in proper form in a note-book immediately after the 
class exercise, and should be inspected and corrected by the 
teacher. This exercise can to advantage be made a part of 
the regular work in English composition. Under such condi- 
tions the taking of notes may be very valuable exercise. 

Such an exercise serves several important ends. As has al- 
ready been said, it may furnish excellent training in English 
expression. Further, it demands attention during the class 
period on the part of the pupil; it requires discrimination in 



230 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

selection of materials and in their arrangement, and it impresses 
the facts recorded in a way that is likely to secure permanence. 
Of course the chief objection to such procedure is the amount of 
time consumed by the teacher in inspecting and correcting the 
notes. Consequently this form of instruction can be used only 
in a limited degree. 

Advantages of the Telling Method of Instruction. — 
(a) // tends to secure and hold the attention. — Oral instruction is 
the most primitive form of teaching. It makes an appeal to the 
hearer under proper conditions, since it is personal and vital. 
Instruction through books suffers in these particulars. It lacks 
the emphasis and the human appeal that belong to the spoken 
word. However, the teacher who secures these advantages in- 
herent in the best forms of oral instruction must possess a 
voice of good quality and the ability to use it well. He must 
first of all speak clearly, pronouncing his words distinctly and 
with sufficient force to be easily heard in all parts of the room. 
His voice must be well modulated; it must vary in intensity, 
and in pitch; it must be vital and s)Tnpathetic in tone, and it 
must possess the various shades of inflection necessary to bring 
out meanings. The proper use of the voice is a fine art that 
every teacher should cultivate. We have seen in our discussions 
concerning discipline that the voice of the teacher is an impor- 
tant factor in class control. It is equally important in in- 
struction. 

The writer has made a rough classification of the most common 
speech defects observed in the class work of one hundred different 
high school teachers. Arranged in the order of their most frequent oc- 
currence they are as follows: — Unnecessarily loud speech; lack of em- 
phasis in bringing out meanings; listless speech (frequently accom- 
panied by lack of bodily vitality) ; monotony in pitch, inflection, and 
intensity; low speech, indistinct speech, particularly dropping the 
voice at the end of a sentence, and in some instances leaving the 
sentence incomplete; high pitch; irritating speech, such as a nasal 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 23 1 

quality, a masculine quality in the case of women, or a feminine 
quality in the case of men. Classifying these hundred teachers ac- 
cording to five grades of excellence, the writer obtained these results: 
— Very poor, 4; poor, 21; medium, 42; good, 25; excellent, 8. Of 
twenty teachers of English observed, seven were distinctly poor 
readers and only three superior readers. The ability to read well 
should be an absolute requirement for a teacher of English literature, 
since a large part of instruction in appreciation depends on this 
abihty. 

(b) It is directly adaptable to the immediate needs oj the class. — 
One of the greatest disadvantages of instruction through books 
is found in the fact that it cannot be planned primarily for the 
needs of a class and never for the needs of individuals. Many of 
the text-books and reference books used in the high school are 
written by teachers in colleges and universities. These books 
too frequently over- emphasize the logical presentation of the 
subject-matter; they too frequently give entire attention to the 
presentation of the subject-matter from the sole standpoint of 
content; they too frequently ignore the capacities, the develop- 
ment, and the interests of the pupil. Fortunately in recent 
years teachers of high school subjects have furnished in increas- 
ing numbers text-books in their particular fields of instruction, 
and teachers in colleges, higher technical schools, and universi- 
ties in writing for pupils of high school grade have considered 
more definitely than formerly the value of writing in such a way 
as to appeal to the learner and to satisfy his needs. However, 
even imder the most ideal conditions the text-book and the 
reference book will often fail to meet the specific wants of 
individual classes in all particulars. For this reason text-book 
instruction must be frequently supplemented by oral instruc- 
tion. Indeed in some courses the teacher is obliged to make 
his own book, if he hopes to secure desirable results. 

This is particularly true Oi instruction in some of the subjects more 
recently added to the high school curriculum. As yet the field of 



232 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

general science has not been sufiSciently marked out and the methods 
by which it should be presented determined, and as a consequence 
there are a number of texts written from different points of view. 
In many instances these do not meet the needs of pupils in these 
courses adequately. The same is true in regard to instruction in 
high school agriculture. Further, some of the older subjects, such 
as civics, biology, and geography can best be taught in terms of local 
conditions, and here a text should be used as an aid but not as the 
chief means of instruction. The best teaching in these subjects is 
generally found in those instances in which the teacher organizes the 
work himself. Some of this organization may well be in the form of 
printed or mimeographed outlines and instructions, but much must 
be explained orally to the pupils. In any event the work must be 
supplemented by explanations on the part of the teacher, and by 
general discussions on the part of the teacher and the class. 

(c) It supplies the class with information that is more special 
and recent than that ofered in the book. — ^Text-books, however 
comprehensive and accurate, soon get out of date, particularly 
in the fields of physical and social science. Constantly new 
discoveries are being made, and new points of view being ad- 
vanced. Further than this, methods of presentation and in- 
struction may change in the treatment of various courses in 
the curriculum, so that in this way a book although adequate 
and accurate in regard to subject-matter, may be out of date. 
Not only may the text be in part or as a whole out of date, for 
the reasons above stated, it may also be insufficient from the 
point of view of the special interests or needs of the school and 
the community. This is generally true of the applied aspects 
of science. Texts in physics and chemistry, for example, can- 
not take account of the vocational possibilities of particular 
localities. They must be written from a general point of view. 
In a community where there are important dyeing and bleach- 
ing industries, evidently the emphasis in chemistry should be 
different than in those communities in which the activities are 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 233 

largely agricultural; in a coast town or city, biology might be 
taught with quite different materials than those used in an 
inland locality. 

The Capable High School Teacher must be Superior to 
any Single Book or any Collection of Books. — For the various 
reasons presented in the preceding topic, it may be seen that 
no teacher can afford to be a slave to any one book or collection 
of books. The text-book and the reference book have a place 
and an important place in all grades of high school instruction, 
but they should never be the sole means, seldom the chief means, 
by which pupils acquire knowledge, and advance in skill. In 
America more than in European countries the teacher relies 
on the book as the chief source of imparting information to his 
class. The reasons for this dependence on the book arise chiefly 
from three main causes, causes that every ambitious . teacher 
of high school grade should seek to remove. These causes 
are: — 

(a) Many of our teachers lack initiative. — In our earlier 
discussions of the preparation of the secondary school teacher, 
we emphasized the fact that in Germany and in France 
the training and preparation required for a teacher in a 
gymnasium, a lysee, or communal college is much more extensive 
and rigorous than that required for a teacher in our public or pri- 
vate high schools. As result of this more exacting preparation in 
Europe than in America a superior set of teachers is secured. 
One of the qualities of superiority, perhaps the most important 
quality, is initiative. The average secondary teacher in Europe 
succeeds better in planning and doing than does the average 
teacher of high school grade in America. 

(b) American teachers have not been so trained in the presenta- 
tion of subject-matter as to be able to do this on their own initiative. — 
A careful preparation in the technique and the principles of 
teaching is necessary in order to train the teacher in resourceful- 
ness of presentation. Such preparation we have seen is lacking 



234 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

in the case of many of our high school teachers. However, as 
the years go by the necessity of such a preparation will be more 
and more apparent. As it is at present, the opportunities now 
offered for the higher training of teachers in America are so 
extensive and numerous that the ambitious individual need 
rarely fail from a lack of such preparation. 

(c) Many teachers do not have sufficient familiarity with the 
subject-matter in which they give instruction to be able to add ma- 
terially to the information given in books. — In scholarship, as we 
pointed out earlier in our discussion, the American high school 
teacher is often deficient. It is impossible for a teacher who 
does not know the advanced phases of his subject to do much 
more than follow a book. On the other hand, the teacher who 
has any field of thought and research within his grasp, can give 
to his class much more than any text-book can possibly furnish. 
Further, the fact that the teacher is a scholar will change his 
whole attitude toward the subject that he is teaching, and will 
react favorably on his attitude toward the class and the atti- 
tude of the class toward him. In this connection it should again 
be emphasized, that in recent years there has been marked im- 
provement in the training of the high school teacher, and as 
a result young men and women of greater ability, skill, and 
knowledge are in ever increasing numbers entering the field of 
secondary instruction. 

Text-book Instruction. — ^In the above discussion of oral 
instruction, we have from time to time contrasted it with in- 
struction through the medium of books, and have pointed out 
some of the advantages and disadvantages that are to be found 
in obtaining information from the printed page. We have seen 
that the book has the advantage of presenting in a permanent 
and readily accessible form information that is important for 
the pupil to obtain; that this information is as a rule reasonably 
accurate, and that it can be secured, if books are properly 
used, in a relatively brief space of time. On the other hand 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 235 

books are often so constructed both in respect to subject-matter 
and to form that they are not suited to the needs of particular 
classes and individual pupils. Also they lack the interest that 
oral instruction with its emphasis on the personal element pos- 
sesses when such instruction is properly given; and they 
are often over-logical, and give too little heed to the interests 
and abiUties of the pupil. Bagley ^ points out additional diffi- 
culties in the use of text-books. He says, "The pupil must have 
some motive for attacking the printed page, or some interest in 
its contents, if he is to give it the attention that is necessary for 
the assimilation of the matter presented. . . . The text-book 
may employ terms the meanings of which are not familiar to 
the pupils. ... It may present matter for the apperception 
of which the pupil lacks an adequate basis of fact. . . . Even 
if these conditions are not operative, the reading of the text will 
not hold attention so well as would oral presentation of the 
same matter." 

Text-books should be Considered merely as Aids in 
Teaching; not as Substitutes for Teaching. — From the above 
discussion it is apparent that text-books are necessary tools of 
instruction, but that they must be considered as supplementary 
to instruction rather than as the sole or chief means of impart- 
ing knowledge. As has often been pointed out in these pages, 
one of the common criticisms of high school instruction is that 
it consists largely of lesson hearing, that is, — in requiring pupils 
to recite on materials that they have memorized from texts 
and manuals outside of the classroom, and often with no direc- 
tion on the part of the teacher. The teacher must prepare the 
pupil to study the text intelligently and economically. This is 
ordinarily done through the assignment. Unfortunately the 
assignment, which is the very core of successful instruction, is 
frequently ignored, or grossly slighted by many teachers. 

* Classroom Management (1907), p. 191. 



236 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

The Essentials of a Proper Assignment. — In order that the 
assignment may perform its proper function, the teacher must 
keep constantly before him certain basal principles. 

(a) The teacher must know the hook thoroughly, and evaluate it 
in terms of the needs of the class. — ^High school teachers some- 
times, when assigned a subject with which they have little 
familiarity, aim merely to "keep just ahead of the class." 
Clearly such teaching can bring only the most mediocre results. 
While the teacher should have a much wider familiarity with 
a subject than the information given in any one book, the least 
that should be demanded is that he know thoroughly the text- 
book that the class is using. 

Parker ^ in discussing this requisite for an effective assign- 
ment, says, — "After a text-book is adopted, the teacher should 
study it thoroughly in order to use it intelUgently. Some books 
do not involve any necessary order in the study of the chaptets 
which they contain. In such cases any order which the teacher 
may devise might prove satisfactory. In other books, how- 
ever, little departure should be made from the regular order 
of the chapters." Again he writes, quoting Thorndike, — "Many 
of the evils attributed to the overuse of text-books are really 
due to misunderstanding and misuse of them. In the case of a 
good text-book there is a reason for every item and for its posi- 
tion in the whole. Too often a teacher uses a section of a book 
much as a savage might use a coat to cover his legs, or as a 
child uses a saw to cut a string, scissors to cut a board, and a 
padlock as a bracelet." 

(b) When the teacher has an adequate understanding of the text 
that he is teaching, he must then decide on the proper emphasis to 
he given to the various topics that it contains .—Cl^dxly not all 
items are of equal importance, even when considered objec- 
tively; and when these are considered in terms of the interests, 
capacities, and comprehension of the class there are some that 

^ Methods of Teaching in High Schools (191 1), p. 422. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 237 

need to be made extremely emphatic, while others may be 
passed over with but slight attention. McMurry ^ urges that 
the text-book be made use of largely *as a summary, an aid to 
review, a convenient outline and a help to the memory. The 
teacher must re-arrange the materials in the text-book by cull- 
ing out the more important truths, and bringing the secondary 
and minor facts into relation with these. He should omit some 
details and add others. 

It not infrequently happens in certain subjects of instruction that 
the teacher attempts to emphasize practically all the topics of the 
text equally. This is often true of the teacher of history, who is un- 
willing to omit any detail that the writer of the book has thought 
proper to elaborate. In the average text in this subject, however, 
there are many facts of so little general importance in themselves 
that it is not proper to require the pupil to master them. There are 
otlier facts that are important when considered from the general 
point of view of the development of a people, but so remote from the 
pupils' interest and so dif&cult for them to comprehend, that the 
teacher is not justified in dwelling upon these facts. For example, 
the average high school pupil can get very little from a discussion 
of the development of the Athenian constitution or the growth of 
the English system of law. Is it wise under such conditions to at- 
tempt elaborate expositions of such topics, however important they 
may be in themselves? 

(c) The teacher should give adequate time during the recitation 
to the assignment. — Too frequently the teacher leaves the "giv- 
ing out" of the next day's lesson to the last moment, and then 
in a few hurried words tells the class what they are to prepare. 

Miss Stevens in her discussion of the question in class instruction 
furnishes several instances of typical assignments given hurriedly 
at the end of the hour. An example taken from a class in English 
is as follows, — "I want to announce the work for the next time, and 
I want to hand back to you the themes I have corrected, and I shall 

^ Method of the Recitation, Chapter XIII. 



238 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

ask you to bring them next time, so that we may enter our misspelled 
words in our books. The work for the next time is to take a portion 
of the chapter on Bryant, read as far, please, in that chapter, as the 
discussion of American literature at the time Bryant wrote, on page 
176; that covers practically the whole of Bryant's life, and leave for 
another time only the discussion of Bryant as a writer." Clearly 
this is not an assignment in the sense of an attempt to prepare the 
class for studying the next lesson. It is merely a set of hurried and 
poorly phrased directions. Less detailed and more hastily given 
out than this, as poor as it is, are the following, — "Next day's lesson: 
Fifth Canto finished ; read the Sixth. I want to see if the next time 
you can tell me what particular task Scott set himself when he wrote 
this story, etc." "I want everyone by Monday to have purchased a 
copy of Silas Mamer. . . . For tomorrow prepare the grammar on 
page — ." 

In a few instances attempts were made in the assignments quoted 
by Miss Stevens to do more than merely to give directions. In these 
instances the teacher used the assignment as an aid to the pupil in 
the preparation for his work of the next recitation. However, such 
assignments seem to have been infrequent and woefully brief. A 
teacher of history concludes the recitation as follows, — "I am going 
to ask you this question for you to think over and tell me tomorrow: 
You said that no matter how large a state was, whether large or 
small, whether it had one thousand or millions in it, each state should 
have two men in the Senate, but it is according to the population in 
the House. Which do you think is the fairer, to have the representa- 
tion according to population or according to the number of states?" 
In a similar way an English teacher ends the day's recitation, — "The 
next time, in finishing this poem consider Lancelot, whether he is an 
out and out scoundrel, or whether he is noble and manly in heart." 
The slight merit that these last two assignments possess lies in the 
fact that they are intended to stimulate the thought of the pupil in 
the preparation of his next lesson. That they are fragmentary and 
inadequate is clearly evident. 

The writer has noted down the character of the assignments in two 
hundred high school classes visited by him. In one hundred and two 
of these classes there was no assignment in any other sense than that 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 239 

of giving brief directions as to the work to be taken up for the next 
lesson. In ninety-three cases the assignment consisted of a statement 
such as this, — "Take the next six pages for to-morrow's lesson." 
In ninety-eight cases some attempt was made to direct the pupil in 
the preparation of the following lesson, but in only twelve of these 
were more than ten minutes devoted to the work. In one lesson in 
history half an hour was given to working on the coming lesson. This, 
however, was an extreme case. 

It seems probable from the facts discussed above that serious 
attempts at assigning lessons are exceptions in high school 
instruction. The assignment is slighted in the majority of 
cases, and is not made a teaching opportunity. While no general 
rule of procedure can be laid down, it is safe to say that in the 
average high school class from one-quarter to one-third of the 
time of the recitation should be given over to the work of pre- 
paring the pupils for the new materials that they are to take up. 
No teacher who contents himself with giving a few brief and 
generally ill-considered instructions in regard to the advanced 
work to be taken up by the class is teaching his subject to the 
best of his ability. 

(d) In the assignment the teacher should make his instructions 
so definite that they shall be unmistakably understood. — He should 
not be satisfied to frame his statements merely so that the at- 
tentive pupil of reasonable intelligence may understand. He 
must, if it be possible, compel all but the dullest to comprehend 
what is meant. Teachers are often surprised to find how poorly 
they are understood and how inadequately their directions are 
followed. They generally blame the pupils, and with a certain 
degree of justice. However, observations concerning the stu- 
pidity and carelessness of the boys and girls under their charge 
will not remedy matters. No teacher who contents himself 
with hurried and poorly devised instructions given out at the 
end of the hour can expect to have these instructions compre- 
hended, and acted on by any large number of his class. 



240 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

The dullness of some pupils in understanding the assignment is 
illustrated by the following composition written in response to the 
directions of the teacher to compose a theme in description so worded 
that the reader could "feel the picture." In the theme the words 
feel the picture were literally interpreted with the following astonish- 
ing result: — "There is a banister along the wall up as far as the attic, 
and follow this all the way up. Then feel along the wall and you will 
find a door. Open this door. Then walk around the room. Feel 
along the wall for a picture which is just about the height of your 
head. Then come down the way which you came up." 

(e) In the assignment the teacher should attempt to clear up 
those points concerning which there is likely to be difficulty and mis- 
understanding. These misunderstandings and difficulties are 
of various sorts. Often in English and history the meaning of 
certain words needs to be explained in advance. Sometimes it 
is well to warn the class of errors which the previous experience 
of the teacher has shown him are frequently made. In mathe- 
matics and science processes are to be explained and illustrated, 
in language idioms to be pointed out, and so on. In these ex- 
planations the teacher should strive to aid the pupil in over- 
coming his probable difficulties in the most economical manner. 
As we pointed out in Chapter IX., however, the teacher must 
avoid on the one hand the extreme of telling the pupil so little 
that he will blunder about in his work, and on the other hand 
telling him so much that all initiative is taken away from the 
learner and he is made dependent on the teacher.-^ 

(f) The chief function of the assignment is to teach the pupil how 
to study. — Few pupils in the first years of the high school have 
an adequate notion of how to prepare their lessons; many never 
acquire any proper idea of how to study. It is an important 
function of the teacher to give the pupil the necessary informa- 
tion and to habituate him in the essential skill relative to the 
preparation of his school tasks. It is probably more important 

1 See also Chapter XVIL, p. 365. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 241 

SO to train the pupil that he acquires the technique of eco- 
nomical and effective study than it is to furnish him with any 
body of facts or to habituate him in any specific kinds of skill. 
In part, instruction in how to study belongs to the supervised 
study period to be discussed in a later chapter; in part it belongs 
to the period of assignment during the recitation hour. 

There are various devices that skilled teachers use to aid the 
pupil in the preparation of his next day's work. Subsequently 
these will be discussed at considerable length. Here we may 
briefly mention some of the most important. In such subjects 
as English literature and history the teacher should frame 
either by himself or with the aid of the class study-questions, the 
aim of which is two-fold, namely, to emphasize important points 
and to stimulate thought. Such study-questions are sometimes 
found in well-edited texts for high school use. The resourceful 
teacher should in any instance be able to frame a certain number 
of such study-questions. At times study-questions may be 
expanded into topics or organized into outlines. This is a 
favorite device in history. 

Demonstrations of technique and methods of procedure are 
often employed by teachers of language, mathematics, and the 
natural sciences. Sometimes the teacher of geometry, or algebra 
works out with the class the chief principles involved in the 
coming lessons; teachers of physics and chemistry go over with 
the class in advance the technique of their laboratory work; 
and teachers of language show the pupils how to translate with 
the aid of lexicon and dictionary a passage "at sight." 

One of the finest classes that the writer has ever witnessed was that 
of a skilled instructor in German. He spent the entire hour with his 
pupils, young men and women in the senior class, in going over an 
unfamiliar passage and showing them how to translate it in the most 
direct, time-saving, and effective way. The outcome of this kind of 
instruction was a marked increase in the ability of the class to read 
German, and a genuine pleasure in the accomplishment. 



242 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

The following statement from an observer of a class in Roman 
history illustrates how some teachers attempt to instruct their pupils 
in the proper method of studying history: — "As the period was un- 
prepared, there was no hearing of any lesson, but the whole period 
was spent in discussing the assignment for the next recitation, and 
in showing the pupils how to select the important ideas in the book 
and interpret their significance. I have never seen ancient history 
taught more effectively. In the first place the aim stood out clearly, 
and the pupils comprehended the aim. The content of the assign- 
ment related to the Roman army, the uses to which the men and 
the equipment were put, and the question of conquest and defence. 
The teacher constantly impressed upon tlie class the desirability of 
interpreting the facts that they found in their book in terms significant 
today. He raised suggestive questions, but he left all of the work 
to be done by the pupils themselves. He developed their ideas with 
them, but he made sure that the thoughts expressed were their ideas, 
and 'primarily their development. 

"During the first part of the period he required the class to read 
over silently the text, with the thought of discovering while they read, 
those facts that had relation to modern life, and present-day condi- 
tions. Then he asked one of the pupils to read aloud a section that 
had been previously read by the class in silence, and called for sug- 
gestive questions relating to this section. The comparative ease with 
which such suggestions were given showed that the members of the 
class had considerable familiarity with this method of study. Among 
the questions brought out were the following: — 'What are the sources 
from which the United States army is drawn?' *To what services 
may this army be put, besides those that it now performs, so that its 
productive power may be increased?' 'Why do modern nations 
spend so much money in the defence of the territory formerly de- 
fended by the Romans?' 'Are the defences of the United States 
adequate?' Many additional suggestions of a similar nature were 
formulated by the teacher and the class working together. Without 
further discussion these suggestions were left to be considered in the 
final working over of the lesson outside of the class. The vitality of 
the recitation, and the apparent enthusiasm of the class were remark- 
able. The discipline was perfect. There was no objectionable be- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 243 

havior, and not a single pupil showed a negative attitude toward the 
work. Of course, points of criticism could be found. At times the 
discussion seemed to get too far away from the lesson in ancient his- 
tory. However, the teacher seemed to encourage these wanderings 
in so far as they raised a profitable set of questions that related to 
modern life and present-day conditions." 



CHAPTER XII 

THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD — ADDING NEW KNOWLEDGE 
THROUGH ILLUSTRATION AND DEMONSTRATION 

The Nature of Illustration.-rA common fault found in all 
grades of instruction is a lack of understanding on the part of 
the pupil of the meaning of the facts and principles presented.} 
While this is to an extent due to an absence of interest and 
ability in the learner, it is in part the result of poor methods of 
teaching. At times teachers do not make the subject-matter 
with which they are dealing sufficiently concrete and definite to 
secure the attention and comprehension of the pupil. Very 
often such attention and comprehension can be gained through 
the use of apt and familiar illustrations. i^It has been the writer's 
experience that high school teachers as a rule do not pay suf- 
ficient consideration to the problem of adequate illustration, j 
( They are too apt to dwell in the realm of the abstract. ; A con- 
sideration of the nature and scope of illustration by the teacher 
should impress him with its great value as a means of adding 
new knowledge to the information that the learner already 
possesses. 

(a) To illustrate is to make clear. — ^The root meaning of ''to 
illustrate" is, to make clear. As a working definition the original 
significance of the term can be accepted as a fundamental guide 
in teaching. It is one of the most important functions of the 
teacher to make clear to the pupil those ideas that are presented 
in text-books and oral discussion and which in themselves may 
be difficult to understand and envisage. The teacher who uses 
illustration as a method of instruction aims to m^ke the less 
well known clear in terms of the better known. ; Illustration 

244 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 245 

often employs likeness and comparison as its method of ex- 
position, but the teacher should always remember that mere 
comparison is not enough^ That which is illustrated must be 
illustrated by something more simple and familiar than itself. 

Particularly in literature the high school pupil finds quantities of 
pseudo-illustrative materials in the form of allusions. Allusions are 
often to be classed as pseudo-illustrative from the fact that they 
express through simile, metaphor, and other figures of speech com- 
parisons which are frequently more obscure than the simple state- 
ment without comparison. In the writer's own experience, Milton's 
poems were made extremely distasteful because of the wealth of 
classical and Biblical allusion that they contained, and the insistence 
of the instructor that all of these allusions should be traced to their 
source and explained. To a classicist such comparisons would be 
vivifying " and clarifying, but to the immature boy or girl of high 
school age they can be nothing but a burden, discouragement, and 
source of confusion. ' The teacher of literature must remember that 
the allusion is introduced by the writer for two purposes. Probably 
his minor aim in most instances is to make clear and definite; generally 
his main purpose is aesthetic.] But in any case neither clearness nor 
beauty can be attained unless the reader understands the significance 
of the allusion. As a rule this understanding cannot be secured easily 
by requiring the learner to study out the significance of the com- 
parisons. He frequently loses the main point in the tangle of ex- 
planation, and he rarely gets aesthetic appreciation by the laborious 
process of working out the meaning of the allusion. The appreciation 
of beauty, like the appreciation of wit, must be based on a ready com- 
prehension. To explain a joke is to destroy it; likewise to explain a 
simile or metaphor is to rob it of its main value. 

(b) The forms of ilhistration are varied. — There are numerous 
forms of illustration. (The most simple and direct means of ex- 
plaining some fact or principle is to show this fact or demonstrate 
this principle to the learned This is technically known as object- 
teaching, and will be discussed at greater length in a subsequent 
paragraph. Often, however, it is impossible to illustrate through 



246 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

the object itself, and sometimes, as we shall see later, it is peda- 
gogically midesirable. .Pictures and models serve as excellent 
substitutes for objects. At times maps and graphs are im- 
portant means of illustration. Diagrams also are useful. They 
are far removed from the objective and concrete in many in- 
stances, and yet they are media of illustration if they make more 
clear and definite anything that in itself is obscure and difficult. 
Diagrams are sometimes used to advantage in language lessons. 
They serve a purpose in the exposition of extremely abstract 
forms of thought, as for example, the emplojonent by James in 
his Principles of Psychology of the "wave of consciousness" 
to illustrate the nature of mental processes; and the use by some 
writers and teachers of graphic and glyptic formulae in teaching 
chemistry. 

It is to be remembered that a visual presentation is not al- 
ways necessary as a means of illustration. All that the teacher 
needs to do in many instances is to call before the "mind's eye" 
of the pupil some scene or circumstance which vivifies the 
spoken or the printed word. The function of the teacher here 
is to suggest some experience that arouses in the mind of the 
pupil a train of thoughts or definite images that serve to give 
meaning to what otherwise is likely to be indefinite and confused. 

Illustration through stimulating the imagination of the pupil has 
its chief function in literature, in history, and the social sciences. In 
the appreciation of literature it is often necessary for the reader to 
image the situations described or narrated. Whittier's Snow-Bound^ 
for example, means much more to the boy or girl who can picture the 
winter's landscape, the biting cold outside, and the blazing warmth 
coming from the great fireplace, and see in fancy the family group 
seated near by, than it can possibly mean to the pupil who merely 
interprets the words of the poem in terms of their abstract meaning. 
It is one of the functions of the teacher through suggestion to arouse 
such images in the minds of his pupils. Otherwise the teaching of 
this form of art may be barren and devoid of interest. In the ap- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 247 

preciation of humor, too, which is sadly lacking in any developed 
form in most pupils, the teacher can do much through illustration to 
stimulate a liking for and a comprehension of the genuinely comic. 
Such writers as Washington Irving have a very real and subtle sense 
of the truly humorous. However, most pupils of high school age fail 
to comprehend much of this humor because of its very delicacy and 
refinement. Through suggesting parallels in the pupils' daily life to 
the scenes and incidents portrayed by Irving, the teacher may make 
real what otherwise would be entirely lost. 

"I thought," writes an observer, "when visiting an EngUsh litera- 
ture class, I should surely find the teacher appealing to the imagina- 
tion of the pupn, especially when the subject of the lesson happened 
to be a poem. Not once, however, was the attempt made to have 
the pupils use in their mind's eye that which was not present. Noth- 
ing was said about the rugged grandeur of the Scottish Highlands 
and lakes, nor of the stem character of the Gael. Instead of arousing 
the class to sympathize with the spirit of the poem, the whole hour 
was occupied in asking them petty questions, the answers to which 
the pupils would forget after their final examination." 

"What impressed me most in this recitation," writes a second ob- 
server, "was the unusual ability which the teacher possessed to call 
up through hints and suggestions scenes and experiences that gave life 
and substance to the subject of the lesson, — the steps taken by Rome 
to meet Carthage on the sea, and the events that followed these 
naval preparations. He caused me, and I am sure he caused his 
class, actually to visuaHze these preparations. He made the first 
naval encounter between Rome and Carthage appear before the 
mind's eye as a physical fact." 

Literature, like history, acquires value in depicting human hfe in 
terms of its broader practical, or moral significance. The character 
in fiction, or in real life, if correctly portrayed, typifies some impor- 
tant aspect of human experience. Such characters stand out as ex- 
amples of men and women whose behavior is to be copied or avoided, 
as the case may be. However, too frequently, these persons seem 
remote and unreal. They must be made vital in the imagination if 
they are to have any significance for young people of the present day 
and generation. What is true of historical and fictitious personages 



248 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

is likewise true of actual events and situations. They must be inter- 
preted in terms of the present if they are to have a meaning. 

The practice of teachers varies considerably in illustrating 
the past by calling up present events and characters. Some 
teachers of history treat their subject largely as a set of facts 
and principles that have neither retrospective or prospective 
reference. Some go to the other extreme of attempting to relate 
everything in the text to present-day life and conditions. As a 
rule, however, teachers err more by lack of use of parallels be- 
tween the past and the present than by excessive use of such 
illustrative materials. 

We find such instances as the following: — ^A teacher of English 
history is discussing with his class the Spanish Armada and the 
growth of England's sea-power. He ignores the fact of the Great 
War and the part that the British navy has played in it. A teacher 
of Roman history in considering the class legislation contained in 
the agrarian laws never mentions similar conditions in other periods 
of history. A class in United States history, considering the 
gradual wearing down of the South by the North, is not referred to 
a similar process taking place at the present day in the European 
struggle. 

Examples of the opposite tendency are the following: — ^A teacher 
of civics in discussing taxation, begins by considering the manners 
in which taxes are raised in the local community. The perfidy of 
Rome in her treatment of Carthage is made evident by illustrations 
taken from individual life. "If you signed a temperance pledge, and 
an enemy got all of your acquaintances to induce you to drink, and 
then punished you for drinking, would that be fair treatment?" 
asks the teacher. The pupils see the point and the moral issue in- 
volved. The significance of ostracism is brought home by a reference 
to the political struggle between Wilson and Hughes, and the effect 
that the Athenian law would have on these men were it in operation 
in America. To illustrate how West has constructed his history and 
to impress on the class some elements of historical method the teacher 
sets before his pupils the problem of writing their own lives either 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 249 

chronologically, or under various topics, such as education, travels, 
occupations, recreations and amusements.^ 

(c) Illustration does not consist merely of passive presentation; 
it involves reaction on the part of the pupil. — Teachers make a 
mistake if they assume that illustration consists merely in show- 
ing some object to the learner, or calling some fact or incident 
to his attention. Effective illustration involves activity on the 
part of the learner. Such activity may consist in objective 
doing, as in dramatization of a school play, in the making of 
illustrative materials for individual or school use, and so on, or 
it may be more of a subjective nature, as for example, the active 
control of the imagination in the creation of a mental picture of 
some incident or scene that is presented in the class exercise, 
or that is assigned for outside study. In any event, there must 
be some reaction on the part of the learner if the illustration 
is to be effective in its highest degree. 

The following example of illustration that involves activity on 
the part of the pupil is one that can often be used to advantage in 
the work in English composition. An observer says: — "The best 
example of the process of interpreting facts of knowledge in terms 
of facts of experience I found in a class in English. The teacher in 
assigning a lesson in exposition took pains to find some subject that 
could be described from first-hand knowledge. As an illustration of 
what she wanted, she selected an article from the morning paper 
describing a Swedish festivity. There were many different nation- 
alities in her class, and she asked for a description of national customs 
from various representatives of this group. The pupils responded 
with enthusiasm to the suggestion, and the compositions that were 
later handed in were above the average work of this class, as the 
teacher later informed me." 

The Nature and Scope of Object-teaching. — In a preceding 
paragraph the fact has been mentioned that the most direct 

1 See Chapter II., p. 32. 



250 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

form of illustration consists in presenting the object to the 
learner. This is object-teaching, as it is commonly termed, 
and it possesses certain decided advantages, as well as dis- 
advantages. Object-teaching is not something new in edu- 
cational practice. In various forms it has been advocated 
by educational reformers for many centuries, and to a greater 
or less degree it has been a method employed in instruction. 

The teaching of all subjects in their origin was chiefly objec- 
tive. The great departments of human knowledge grew up 
largely because of human needs. Geometry, for example, as 
its name implies was measurement of land. In the Roman 
schools calculations were carried on by the use of pebbles and 
the reckoning board. Schoolrooms were often adorned with 
busts of authors read, and with pictures cut in stone, depicting 
great events of history or mythology. Nevertheless a large 
part of the teaching was very far removed from the concrete. 
This is particularly true of the education that existed in the 
middle ages. In later times, Comenius made it a cardinal maxim 
to "present first the thing itself and the real intuition of it; then 
the real explanation for the further elucidation of it." Rousseau 
said: "In general never substitute the sign for the thing, save 
when it is impossible to show the thing." Pestalozzi held, that 
"sense impression of nature is the only true foundation of knowl- 
edge." Pestalozzi's influence first made itself felt in Europe, 
but it made great headway in America after i860 through the 
influence of the Oswego Normal School. Most of the accredited 
methods now used in the elementary schools of Europe and of 
America can be traced more or less directly to the principles of 
object-teaching. 

Important Considerations to be Kept in Mind in Teaching 
by Means of Objects. — (a) The object may be brought to the 
pupil, or the pupil to the object. — It is obvious that certain ob- 
jects, or their representations, may be presented conveniently 
in the classroom. Others cannot be brought before the pupil 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 25 1 

easily, and the pupil must be taken to the objects. As a rule 
it is advantageous to bring the object into the classroom when 
this is feasible. It can then be shown to the class under con- 
trolled conditions, and it is thus possible more definitely, clearly, 
and economically to exhibit its essential features. In some in- 
stances objects of great size have been brought into the class- 
room. In engineering colleges, for example, enormous rooms 
have been provided into which may be brought electric cars and 
steam locomotives, in order that the students in these courses 
may be shown the construction and principles of operation of 
these machines. Object-teaching on such a large scale is ex- 
tremely expensive and cannot be used to any great extent in 
most institutions of learning, clearly not in the ordinary high 
school. 

Obviously there are many objects that cannot be brought into 
the classroom under any circumstances, for example, museums 
of art and industrial plants. It is important and sometimes 
necessary, however, that the learner should see these objects. 
There are other objects that might be brought into the class- 
room, which can better be seen and understood in their natural 
environment. In botany and zoology it is generally desirable to 
show the pupils plants and animals in the fields and woods 
when this is possible. The natural habitat is here significant 
and important. Moreover, courses in geology and in geography 
are also effectively taught by taking the pupils out of the school 
building and exhibiting to them natural phenomena as they 
exist in the world outside of the classroom. 

Often the object exhibited is not so important as the process 
involved. This is clearly true to a considerable extent in in- 
dustrial plants. It is even more true in the operation of a state 
or a city government. What the learner is here chiefly con- 
cerned with is the procedure rather than the thing. That kind 
of object-teaching which emphasizes relationships and procedure 
is pedagogically more important than that kind which lays 



252 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

stress merely on the object as object, for the plain reason that 
the comprehension of processes and relationships requires a 
greater mental activity on the part of the learner than does the 
understanding of objects as mere things. 

As a rule object- teaching is more in evidence in the elemen- 
tary than in the high school. In the primary grades a consider- 
able amount of instruction follows the lines of the Kindergarten 
and the Montessori methods, both of which lay great stress on 
"sense training" and objective methods. In the upper grades, 
too, there are numerous attempts to make abstract notions clear 
through objective methods. In the high school, on the other 
hand, in the older courses, with the possible exception of science, 
object-teaching as a rule is conspicuous by its absence. 

(b) The mind of the learner must he prepared to understand the 
object and to comprehend the process shown. — ^The mere presenta- 
tion of the object is not sufficient to insure comprehension. 
The pupil must know what to look for and how to look for it in 
advance of the actual presentation. If a teacher is to take his 
class on a field excursion, or on a visit to a museum or a local 
industry, he must in the first place acquaint himself with what 
is to be seen, and then he must instruct his class in what they 
are to see. Field excursions in biology often suffer from the 
fact that they are mere "excursions." Too much is left to 
chance and casual observation. 

As a rule both adults and children observe very inaccurately what 
they see, and often omit some of the most important and essential 
features. In recent years psychologists have given a considerable 
amount of attention to what is technically known as the "psychology 
of observation and report." Simple events have been acted before 
individuals, and they have been required to state later just what 
happened. Again, pictures have been shown for a brief period and 
the observer has been asked to describe what he has seen. At times 
the procedure has- been reduced to classroom conditions, — demon- 
strations have been conducted in such a subject as physics or chemis- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 253 

try, and the pupils have had the task of writing up what has occurred. 
In practically all of these instances the same facts appear, namely, — 
that much that is objectively present is not recognized by the ob- 
server, that a considerable portion of what is seen is distorted and 
confused in the subsequent report of the observer, and that many 
important points are passed over, while less essential details are re- 
membered. Similar facts have caused such a leader in education as 
President Emeritus Eliot of Harvard University, to conclude that 
one of the great functions of the schools should be to train the pupils 
in accurate observation of what is presented to them. How much 
can systematically be accomplished in this way is uncertain. How- 
ever, in specific instances, the teacher should endeavor to prepare 
his pupils in advance for the presentation and observation of con- 
crete materials, and he should further instill into their minds a desire 
to observe carefully and report accurately. If he does this he will 
doubtless give them a certain amount of general training that will 
be as useful to them as an equal amount of training in fundamental 
habits and in correct modes of thought. 

(c) The pupil must be required to give back to the teacher in 
some form that which he has observed. — Not only must the object 
be presented, not only must the pupil be prepared in advance 
to observe what he is to witness; he must further be required to 
report in some form the results of his observation. Pestalozzi, 
years ago, in insisting on the importance of observation, em- 
phasized equally the necessity of coupling it with expression. 
Here is involved the important principle spoken of in an earlier 
paragraph, — namely, illustration must include activity as Avell 
as passivity on the part of the learner. In the procedure of the 
school, observation can be advantageously correlated with work 
in written and in oral composition. The pupil is required to 
describe in written form what he has seen, or to tell w^hat he 
has se'en, for the benefit of the class. In this latter instance we 
have again an example of the benefits of oral composition when 
properly conducted, and also an excellent illustration of the 
cooperative class. 



254 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(d) Care must be taken to prevent the object from confusing the 
idea which it is intended to clarify. — It must always be kept in 
mind that object- teaching is a means to an end, and not an end 
in itself. Its purpose is to give meaning to some fact or prin- 
ciple that is relatively abstract and obscure. Whatever clarifies 
the meaning aids in comprehension. The function of object- 
teaching is merely to make ideas more definite and simple. If, 
however, the learner's attention is buried in the object, he may 
for this very reason fail to grasp the idea which the object is 
intended to illustrate. He may not see the forest because of 
the trees. 

There are two chief reasons why objects may distract from 
the meaning which the teacher is intending to impress on the 
minds of his pupils, rather than emphasize this meaning. In 
the first place, an attractive object may in itself be so interest- 
ing that the pupil will be entirely absorbed in it as an object of 
sensory experience. 

This is often true in regard to pictures, particularly moving pic- 
tures, which have been advocated as means of instruction. Such 
pictures, if used in the school, however, must be employed with the 
greatest of care; otherwise they are likely to degenerate into mere 
forms of entertainment. Children are interested in a purely sensory 
way in pictures, particularly animated pictures. They give little 
heed to what these pictures mean unless they have had their minds 
prepared in advance to look at these pictures, and unless they are 
required to react in some definite way to what they have seen. The 
writer has often foimd that little children will follow with concen- 
trated attention the presentation of a "photo-play" without under- 
standing anything about the plot or the deeper meaning, merely 
because form and movement are in themselves attractive. This is 
doubtless true to a considerable extent of adults as well. Question 
a dozen of your acquaintances in regard to the "pictures" that they 
saw yesterday, and you wUl with scarcely an exception find that their 
ideas are extremely hazy on the subject. Perhaps the fact that the 
great majority who witness these forms of entertainment get but 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 255 

little beyond the mere stimulation of their senses, in part accounts 
for the fact that the ideas behind the photo-plays continue to be so 
superficial and few, and the plots so hackneyed and wretchedly con- 
structed. The public demand nothing better. When moving pic- 
tures are used in the school as means of instruction they must be ex- 
hibited in connection with definite topics of study, and they must be 
so presented as to require the pupil to think out the meaning to an 
extent himself. What applies to moving pictures applies with equal 
force to pictures shown with the ordinary projection lantern, and to 
pictures in the form of stereoscopic cards, for use in the conmion 
hand-stereoscope. 

In the second place, objects may hinder comprehension be- 
cause of the fact that little effort is required to look at them. 
Attention may be at a low ebb, and thought practically non- 
existent when the object is before the eyes. If the learner at- 
tempts to envisage the absent object, however, he finds that 
he must give a higher degree of attention and comprehension. 
Further, he discovers by this means where he is weak in his 
comprehension, and finally in the end the object and its mean- 
ing are better stamped on the memory because of this effort in 
visualization. 

Judd,^ in discussing the teaching of geometry by illustrative 
methods, says, ''Writers on the teaching of geometry have 
urged that it is a mistake to give models and photographs to 
students when they are studying solid geometry. The writer 
saw this pedagogical doctrine carried one step further by a 
teacher who did not draw even the flat figures of plane geometry 
on the board, but required the members of the class to keep the 
figure in mind after it had been drawn by a movement of the 
hand in the air before them. This teacher's contention was that 
reasoning about figures was more exact if the students had the 
figures in their heads." 

It would be difficult to decide in any a priori fashion the rela- 

^ C. H, Judd, The Psychology of High School Subjects, p. 44 (1915). 



256 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

tive merits of the use or disuse of models and diagrams in teach- 
ing such a subject as geometry. Herejs an opportunity for an 
extended and carefully controlled experiment under classroom 
conditions. It seems probable, however, that those writers 
and teachers who would entirely discard the use of visual illus- 
trations in teaching the properties of plane and solid figures, 
have gone too far. Many persons have little power of visualiza- 
tion in space relationships, and would be entirely lost without 
some objective aid. On the other hand, it is desirable to train 
pupils to think in visual terms as much as possible. It seems 
well to continue the use of the common objective means of 
teaching geometrical reasoning, but to supplement it by sub- 
jective methods. 

The problem in regard to object-teaching here raised is not peculiar 
to the teaching of geometry. It applies to all subjects and to all 
grades of instruction. There is danger of insisting too much on the 
concrete when abstract methods of thought are desirable and neces- 
sary. Little progress could be made in arithmetic, and still less in 
algebra, if the thinking in these subjects were tied down to objects, 
and if the learner were always required to work out relationships in 
concrete terms. Splints may be useful in teaching the pupil to count, 
but he must soon get beyond this stage of learning if he is to make 
real progress. Some of the elementary work in fractions can be done 
by visual methods, but these must be discarded relatively early. 
Even in such subjects as civics and social science thought must go 
beyond the "picture stage" if it is to possess real value. 

Demonstration as a Form of Illustration. — In preceding 
paragraphs demonstration has been spoken of as a method of 
making some idea or fact clear to the learner by exhibiting its 
operation. Demonstration may be considered as that form 
of illustration which is employed when a process as distinguished 
from a thing is to be exemplified. We commonly think of 
demonstration in such subjects as physics and chemistry. It 
is a method of illustration which can easily be applied to the 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 257 

teaching of all of the natural sciences. By the aid of the moving 
picture it can also be used in practically all subjects of the cur- 
riculum. Indeed, when anything objective happens, that oc- 
currence can be demonstrated, if the teacher has the proper 
facilities to do so. 

Demonstration in the form of the "class experiment" may 
be substituted for individual laboratory work, and often to great 
advantage. Many experiments in physics, for example, require 
apparatus that is too expensive to duplicate, and too delicate to 
be handled by the individual pupil without careful supervision. 
In such cases the demonstration before the class should be care- 
fully worked out, the pupils being required to note accurately 
all that takes place, and write up a report of it as a part of their 
regular assignment. Teachers of laboratory subjects should 
consider the possibilities of the class experiment, and utilize 
it whenever it can be advantageously employed. At times it 
is economical and pedagogically correct to have a weekly period 
for the class experiment as a substitute for one of the two double 
laboratory periods usually set aside in the high school for the 
teaching of the sciences. 

Cautions to be Observed in Class Demonstrations. — From 
what we have already said in regard to the general principles of 
illustration it can be seen that demonstrations must be con- 
ducted with great care if they are to secure results. There are 
several cautions in addition to those already mentioned that 
the teacher must keep in mind, if demonstration is to prove 
effective. The most important of these cautions are the fol- 
lowing: 

(a) The teacher must make sure that the essential parts of the 
demonstration can be seen easily hy all of the class. — Frequently 
processes are exhibited before large bodies of pupils that make 
little impression on the majority of the class. Sometimes these 
demonstrations cannot be seen; sometimes they can be seen if 
the pupil exerts an extra amount of effort. They must be so 



258 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

clear and striking, however, that they at once secure the atten- 
tion of the class, if they are to make a valuable impression. 

Some teachers spend a large amount of time and show great in- 
genuity in making apparatus of such proportions that it can be ob- 
served by all of the class without difficulty. When such apparatus 
is constructed it should be devised with the thought of its wide use. 
Something that can be shown many times, rather than once, some- 
thing that can be used to illustrate various applications of a principle 
or law, is well worth while. Some of the practical applications of the 
principles of electricity can be shown as class demonstrations to great 
advantage, when the apparatus is of sufficient size to be seen by all. 
Other physical principles can be demonstrated equally well. 

The writer recently witnessed a demonstration in chemistry, in 
which hydrogen sulphide was being generated under a hood, and the 
class, twent3^-six in number, were gathered around to observe the 
process. Seven pupils could see what was taking place. The others 
could get but an occasional glimpse. Twenty minutes were consumed 
in demonstrating the method of generating the gas, and in showing its 
properties. The majority of the class spent the time in looking about 
the room, reading their text, and conversing with their neighbors. 
In a second class an instructor in botany was demonstrating the 
properties of cane sugar and grape sugar at a small table with a class 
of thirty crowded around him. In another school, a teacher of physics 
was discussing magnetism, and was showing the arrangement of iron 
filings in the magnetic field. Only the pupils in the front row of seats 
coxild see what was being demonstrated. 

The following examples show careful attempts on the part of 
the instructor to make his class see the details of his demon- 
strations: — 

A teacher of physics is instructing his pupils in the essentials of 
the construction of a steam engine and its manner of operation. To 
do this he uses a wooden model whose dimensions are roughly four 
feet by two feet. This model can be taken apart and its parts sho-wni 
separately. These are painted in white, black, red, green, blue, 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 259 

orange, and yellow, in order that they may stand out more clearly 
when the machine is shown as a whole. This same teacher has made 
other models for demonstration purposes, such as a spring barometer, 
a force-pump, and a steam pressure gauge. These are all of such size 
that they can be seen in their details by every member of the class. 

A teacher of physiology in presenting the topic of micro-organisms 
and their significance in the human body, shows the class various 
types of such organisms by means of the microscopic attachment to 
an excellent projection lantern. 

A teacher of the manual arts proposes to prepare a series of 
"close-up" pictures for a cinema demonstration of some of the most 
important fundamental operations in wood-work. The value of 
this method of demonstration to large groups has not been sufficiently 
recognized. Since the picture can be greatly magnified, and since 
the operation of the machine can be regulated to almost any desired 
speed, the details of motions can be brought out by this means in a 
truly astonishing manner. 

(b) The teacher must he reasonably sure that the demonstration 
that he is conducting will be successful. — A demonstration that 
does not work, is worse than no demonstration. Under such 
circumstances the class frequently forms the opinion that the 
fact to be illustrated has no real existence outside of the lecture 
or the text-book. Perhaps more often they conclude that the 
teacher has little skill or knowledge of his subject. This belief 
on the part of the class is a serious matter, and the teacher should 
do all in his power to prevent such an opinion from being formed. 
Too much care in the preparation of a demonstration cannot 
be taken. 

An observer reports the following incident: "Yesterday I visited 
a class in geometry conducted by Miss S — . I was much impressed 
with her ability as an instructor until she attempted to show to the 
pupils by visual demonstration the fact that the angles of a triangle 
equal two right angles. The fact had already been demonstrated 
clearly and definitely, but to make its truth more emphatic the 



26o INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

teacher roughly constructed a triangle, and measured it with a crude 
protractor. The measurement showed that the triangle had one 
hundred and ninety degrees. I gained the impression that this part 
of the recitation was a failure. In the place of making a point em- 
phatic and pressing it home, the teacher ended the day's exercise 
with the weak remark, — 'If I had drawn the triangle more carefully 
and measured it more accurately, you would have seen that it would 
have just one hundred and eighty degrees.' I asked myself the ques- 
tion, — 'Does the class beHeve her statement?'" 

Examples of Illustration in High School Subjects. — 

In the preceding pages of this chapter various examples of 
illustration have been given in connection with the principles 
there discussed. Under this topic will be brought together 
other examples of effective illustration taken from the field of 
high school teaching. 

(a) Dramatization as a means of teaching literature. — ^An ef- 
fective means of making a play of Shakespeare real to a high 
school class is to assign various parts to individuals in the class, 
who present it before the class as a whole in dramatic form. 
Such a procedure always arouses interest, and if kept within 
bounds is an admirable means of making vivid the play under 
consideration. There are certain objections, however, that 
must be considered, and given due weight. As a rule it is im- 
possible to select all the class as performers. Some have such 
sHght dramatic ability, that they would spoil the play if they 
were given any important role. Again, pupils are likely to 
make too much out of the work, and to over-emphasize the 
acting side. If a play is presented with any degree of elaborate 
detail, it consumes a great amount of time. Most teachers of 
literature limit attempts at dramatization. They may assign 
various scenes to be read by individual members of the class, 
and they may improvise crude stage properties and settings, 
but to go beyond this is outside of the province of the teacher of 
literature. If a school play is to be given, that is quite a dif- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 26 1 

ferent matter. It is rather a form of social activity than a means 
of serious instruction. 

The most elaborate instance of an attempt to make real plays of 
Shakespeare in the high school that has come to the writer's atten- 
tion is that of the puppet plays given in the high school of Easton, 
Pennsylvania. The following description is given in the words of 
Lear Anderson, a senior in the school: "The idea of the 'Little Theatre' 
originated with the class of 1916. The plans for carrying out the 
idea were hailed with the greatest enthusiasm. . . . The Little Thea- 
tre is about four and one-half feet long and three and one-half feet 
high. There is an opening at the front for a curtain which can be 
raised and lowered by a string. There are tiny electric bulbs for foot- 
lights. The interior of the stage is also lighted by several small 
bulbs above it. Dolls, which represent characters, are moved by 
long wires attached to tiny bases to which the dolls are fastened. 
The Manual Training Department constructed the theatre and the 
stage furniture. The Domestic Arts Department dressed the dolls; 
the boys who had studied electricity in physics, did the wiring for 
the lighting; and we were fortunate in having in our class a young 
man who could paint scenery. When the Little Theatre was com- 
pleted it represented the joint efforts of several departments of the 
school. It is a splendid example of how the interests of other depart- 
ments are bound up with those of the English Department. 

"We made a careful study of Handet before we made any attempt 
to dramatize it. Then a committee of students were appointed to 
divide the work. There were property men, an electrician, a manager, 
a director, and readers who prepared parts for the various characters. 
There were rehearsals after school, and many of the students devoted 
much of their spare time toward planning scenes and preparing 
parts. . . . There were a few of us at each performance who were 
fortunate enough to be mere spectators. These spectators were 
required to give suggestions and to criticise the day's work. We were 
always better satisfied, however, when we were taking an active part 
in the work, in spite of the fact that it required more of our time. A 
written criticism and report in detail of each day's performance was 
made by a class reporter who was appointed each day. . . . 



262 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

"The direct benefits we derived from the use of the Little Theatre 
are suflScient to encourage the EngUsh Department to continue its 
use. The incentive to learn to read well was greater than it ever had 
been. The Little Theatre gave those in the Manual Training De- 
partment an opportunity to apply their knowledge of construction 
work, as weU as teaching them the proportions of a theatre. The 
girls in the Domestic Arts Department learned what colors appear 
best behind the foot-lights. We had always daily reports of the 
class, but a dramatic criticism was unusual as well as novel. . . . 

"The Little Theatre still has many untried and undiscovered pos- 
sibilities. . . . but we feel that we have at least succeeded in open- 
ing a field of action in which an appreciation for good drama in com- 
paratively small children may be developed." 

(b) Ohjed-teaching in the practical arts. — In the high school 
the most extensive field of object-teaching is found in the man- 
ual and domestic arts. These subjects cannot be taught apart 
from the concrete materials with which they deal. In these 
departments we find the advantage of illustration not only 
through the presentation of concrete materials, but also through 
activities required in the construction of these materials. It 
should, however, be kept in mind that the very ease with which 
concreteness and definiteness is obtained in these subjects may 
carry with it certain disadvantages unless these subjects are 
safeguarded. Pupils are to be taught not only to acquire a 
certain amount of skill in performance, but also to acquire dis- 
crimination, taste, and judgment. These abilities "must be 
established if the courses are to have real educational value. 
A similar problem appears in the teaching of the laboratory 
sciences, which like the practical arts have a foundation in 
concrete materials and their manipulation. 

Adams -^ in his excellent book on illustration quotes Sir William 
Ramsay as follows: 

^ John Adams, Exposition and Illustration in Teaching, p. 318 (1910). 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 263 

"Far too much stress is laid, nowadays, on what is called 'prac- 
tical work.' It is possible to have quite an intelligent idea of chemis- 
try without ever having handled a test-tube or touched a balance. 
Lectures on chemistry may be well illustrated experimentally, and 
the necessary theories demonstrated by the lecturer. ... To spend 
several hours a day in practical work is, if not waste, often, at least, 
a work of supererogation." While few teachers of those subjects 
which offer opportunities for practical work would agree with this 
extreme and somewhat reactionary statement, all should recognize 
the fact that practical work should be something more than mere 
practice. In the workshop, the studio, and the laboratory, the stu- 
dent should be taught to discriminate and think, as well as to see 
and do. 

(c) Illustration through demonstration apparatus. — In our dis- 
cussion of demonstration as a means of illustration the state- 
ment was made that teachers of science could profitably spend 
time in constructing or assembling pieces of apparatus suitable 
for demonstrating some of the more important principles of the 
science and its application. As an example of a piece of appara- 
tus of this sort, the following description is suggestive: 

"The transformer which I use in demonstrating to my class in 
elementary physics that the potential of the outgoing current (second- 
ary) bears the same ratio to the potential of the incoming current 
(primary) as the number of turns of wire carrying the outgoing cur- 
rent bears to the number of turns of wire carrying the incoming cur- 
rent, has been a valuable aid to me in my mstruction," writes Mr. R. 0. 
Dummer of the Hope Street High School, Providence. "The trans- 
former consists of three parts; — First, a core (x) of No. 18 iron wire, 
2>2 inches in diameter, and 10 inches long. This core weighs about 
10 pounds, and is tightly wound together by strong cord, and then 
shellacked. Second, a primary coil (y) of 600 turns of No. 16 cotton- 
covered magnet wire. A lead is taken out at the end of the first 200 
turns. The coil will slide over the core easily. Third, a secondary 
coil (z). This consists of a loop of flexible lamp cord six feet long. 
The ends of this cord are fastened to the base of a i3^ volt lamp 



264 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

which serves to indicate the voltage of the outgoing or secondary 
current. The lamp will burn at proper brilliancy when supplied with 
a current at a pressure oi i}4 volts. Decreased brilliancy means a 
falling ofif in the voltage. Increased brilliancy means an increase in 
voltage. 

"The apparatus can be so arranged that a current will flow through 
200 turns of wire, through 400 turns, or through 600 turns. Suppose 
the current is sent first through 200 turns. Take the flexible cord 
with the small lamp attached and make one turn about the iron core 
close to the primary coil. The filament will glow slightly; add a 
second turn and the brilliancy is increased; add another turn, and 
the lamp will give its proper brilliancy. Thus we find through this 
demonstration, by means of a piece of apparatus, the construction 
and manipulation of which can be easily seen by the entire class, that 
100 volts in a primary of 200 turns gives a current of 1.5 volts in a 
secondary of three turns, verifying our equation: — 



V 




t (urns) 


v' 


t' 


1-5 


^ 


t 


100 




200 


. t 


= 


3 



"Now on making this computation for a current through 400 and 
600 turns, we find t to have values of 6 and 9 respectively. This 
means that when the current is sent through 400 turns of wire, we 
must wrap the flexible cable around the core six times in order to 
bring the lamp to proper brilliancy, and that when the current is 
sent through 600 turns of the wire it will take nine turns of the flexible 
cable to produce the desired effect. The class are greatly interested, 
when they have discovered by the formula what the effect should be, 
to see if this effect actually takes place in a demonstration apparatus. 

"In concluding the experiment, I send a 100 volt current through 
200 turns, wrap the secondary three times about the core, and the 
lamp comes to proper brilliancy. I add one more turn, and the lamp 
is over-brilliant, and with the addition of a fifth turn, it bums out." 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 265 

It may be said in conclusion that this demonstration is an ad- 
mirable illustration of the deductive development lesson of the an- 
ticipatory type. This is discussed in detail in Chapter XIV. ^ 

(d) Illustration by means of pictures. — In our discussion of 
this means of illustration, we have mentioned the use of the 
moving picture, the common projection lantern, and the stereo- 
scope as important. The moving picture has not been exten- 
sively employed as yet as a means of instruction in the high 
school. It can be used most effectively when introduced as a 
part of a lesson in the classroom. Frequent use in this way 
would mean careful preparation in advance; it would require a 
selection of films that would be difficult to obtain, even when 
they are in existence, and would involve large expense. For 
these reasons the use of moving pictures as effective means of 
illustration must of necessity be limited in most high schools. 
The projection lantern may be employed more extensively. 
In the best high schools at least one such lantern is available. 
Courses in science, history, and literature could be made more 
vital, interesting, and definite if the teachers had for their use, 
at the appropriate time, carefully selected sets of slides. 

In a high school of medium size in one of the better New England 
communities, a room that will conveniently seat fifty pupils is set 
aside exclusively for the purpose of illustration by means of the pro- 
jection lantern. The machine is of the best. It combines with the or- 
dinary projection features by means of slides, a reflectoscope, and a 
microscopic attachment. The lantern is at the service of every de- 
partment of instruction in the school but is used chiefly by the teach- 
ers of science, history (including civics), literature, and art. At the 
beginning of each term a definite assignment of the room is made to 
various teachers according to a carefully worked-out program. Slides 
and other materials to be used with the lantern are carefully assembled 
in advance, and the schedule of the various classes is so arranged 
that the room will be used by each class at the time when it will be 

^ See p. 307. 



266 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

most advantageous. The room is occupied practically every day in 
the school year, and on many days it is constantly in use during the 
session. The teachers have found this means of illustration of the 
greatest advantage, and as the work has become more and more 
systematized, and teachers have learned to understand its possibili- 
ties, its value has been greatly increased. The success of this means 
of illustration is due to the fact that it has been carefully worked out 
in terms of instructional needs. It is not used in an incidental or 
haphazard way, and never as a method of entertainment. 

In many high schools the hand-stereoscope is used extensively 
in connection with courses in such subjects as commercial 
geography and economics. This method of illustration is easily 
employed in teaching certain phases of history and literature. 
It can be used to advantage in giving pupils pictures of space 
relationships in three dimensions in teaching solid geometry. 
The great value of the stereoscope is in the fact that it represents 
objects tri-dimensionally, and thus gives them an appearance 
of reality that cannot be obtained by any other means of pic- 
torial representation. There is a disadvantage in the fact that 
a picture can be presented to only one pupil at a time. 

In one high school in which the hand-stereoscope is used effectively 
as a means of instruction a room of large dimensions is devoted to 
the purpose, with a teacher or assistant always in attendance. The 
room is provided with filing cases, and the stereograms, which have 
been carefully collected over a period of years by the principal and 
teachers, are arranged according to definite topics of instruction. 
Here are found stereograms in connection with the teaching of litera- 
ture, history, geography, economics, civics, science (principally 
biology), art, and commerce. Pupils are assigned to look up and 
report on specific subjects that arise in the course of the class work. 
For example, the teacher of literature is working with the class on 
the poems of Burns. Pupils are sent to the room at definite periods 
previously assigned, and are referred to stereograms designated by 
certain numbers and filed in reference to these numbers. Each slide 
assigned is studied by the pupil, who takes down notes of what he has 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 267 

seen, and writes a paper on "The Land of Bums." In this particular 
instance the teacher correlates the work in composition with the 
observation of the stereograms. An incidental feature of the use of 
the stereograms, which the teachers of commercial subjects consider 
of general value, is that the pupils are introduced to a carefully worked 
out and practical system of filing. 

(e) Illustration through models^ charts, maps, and diagrams. — • 
Models in high school instruction are employed largely in courses 
in the life sciences. They have certain advantages as means 
of illustration that the living or dead forms do not always pos- 
sess, since they can show facts and relationships that the actual 
objects cannot easily exhibit. Care should be taken for this 
reason to impress upon the pupil the fact that models are spe- 
cially prepared, and that both in size and appearance they may 
not be in conformity in every particular with the object that 
they illustrate. In the writer's own case he was astonished to 
find that some of his students in psychology had supposed that 
the papier mache model of the human brain represented ac- 
curately in all details the actual brain. They therefore as- 
summed that the brain was hollow, as was the model, and that 
the various fibers could be seen in the real brain, just as they 
could be seen in the model. Some of the class did not appear 
to realize that the model of the brain was very much larger 
than the actual brain. Because the model is an abstraction, 
and does not represent the actual object in all of its details, 
Adams ^ recommends that "whenever possible, the teacher 
should follow the example of the engineer, and end all his model 
work by a reference to the actual object." 

Maps are important in high school work, principally in in- 
struction in history. At times they can be used to advantage 
in other subjects. Whenever localities have a significance they 
should be definitely indicated. Often teachers of history dis- 
cuss in detail facts whose significance depends largely on the 

* Op. cit.f p. 323. 



268 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

location of cities, boundaries, coast lines, and mountains, and 
yet ignore entirely these important geographical features, or at 
most refer to them verbally. Maps are necessary for instruc- 
tion of this type. 

Maps as they are used in the schools in America have certain very 
obvious defects which need to be remedied before they can be used 
effectively. I am indebted to Mr. R. M. Brown, of the Rhode Island 
State Normal School for the following notes in regard to wall maps: — ■ 
I. A wall map should display its features in such a way that they 
can be seen from every part of the room. A glazed surface does not 
permit this. Names in small type tend to confusion. 2. A physical 
wall map is more valuable than a political one. 3. A physical wall 
map should follow the rules generally accepted by geographers. Low- 
lands should be in green and highlands in brown. Water should be 
in blue, the deepest shades for the greatest depths. Localities may 
be indicated by a large dot or circle. Political divisions may be in- 
dicated on such maps by heavy red lines. 4. The newest idea is to 
have a single map for a single feature, and new maps are being pub- 
lished at a small cost with this end in view. 

Teachers find it difficult as a rule to secure an adequate number of 
maps, and especially to obtain maps that are designed to show par- 
ticular features. Most of the wall maps that are in use confuse with 
the multiplicity of their details. Rarely can any important feature 
be seen by all of the class from their seats. As a substitute for the 
large wall map the teacher will find the individual outline map often 
superior. The important features can be filled in by the class, and 
in this way the attention will be centered on the chief details. The 
outline map is of considerable advantage in teaching the development 
of a country. When maps are not available the teacher should em- 
phasize the important geographical facts by drawings on the board. 

Graphic representations in the form of diagrams are of great 
use as illustrations in such subjects as mathematics, science, 
civics, and economics. The interpretation of statistical facts 
by means of the distribution graph and similar devices should 
be used more extensively than at present. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 269 

In regard to graphic representations in algebra, Judd ^ says: — "The 
student gets an idea from seeing a graphic representation of an equa- 
tion which he never could get in the same vivid way if the matter 
were discussed wholly in abstract terms. This disposition to show 
the student concrete facts related to algebraic equations is one of the 
most important innovations that have been made in the presentation 
of mathematical sciences to secondary school students." 

In discussing graphic representations of abstract facts and rela- 
tionships, Adams ^ says, — "The value of such diagrams is that we 
can envisage at one glance a large number of facts that would baffle 
any mind to deal with when presented seriatim. . . . The now com- 
mon plan of recording such matters as lengths of shadows, tempera- 
tures, barometric pressures, school attendances, has rendered the 
chart form of illustration familiar even to young children." 

In the use of maps and diagrams the teacher should keep in 
mind the important fact that their meaning is not self-evident. 
The pupils must be trained in their interpretation if these illus- 
trations are to be of value. 

(f) Illustration through example. — A common means of mak- 
ing clear some topic that is difficult of comprehension is to rein- 
force it through example. The most obvious illustrations of 
this type in high school instruction are found in such subjects 
as algebra and foreign languages. Here the examples are pre- 
sented in verbal form, and great care must be taken to make 
them as definite and clear as possible. Otherwise they will fail 
as illustrations because of their abstractness. It is to be re- 
membered that examples in these subjects in addition to serv- 
ing as illustrations of rules and principles perform the further 
functions of ofifering opportunities for drill and for thinking. 
Examples have added attractiveness and meaning when they are 
taken from experiences familiar in the everyday life of the pupil. 

For instance, the teacher of physics illustrates the meaning of 
stable, unstable, and neutral equilibrium, by showing a glass stand- 

1 Op. cit., p. 109. 2 Qp^ cit., pp. 384-385. 



270 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

ing upright, a celluloid manikin with a lead weight at the base, and a 
glass turned over on its side; and the meaning of friction by adhesion 
by exhibiting a glass bird sticking to a flower dish by means of gum 
rubber. The teacher of Latin makes clearer the meaning of the 
prepositions: a, ad, de, e, and ex, by writing the words ad-vance, ab- 
sent, de-scend, and ex-terior on the board and discussing with the 
class their significance. 

It has often been urged that examples with a practical ap- 
plication are to be used whenever possible as means of illustra- 
tion, and attempts have been made to give every subject in the 
curriculum a practical significance. While it is possible and 
desirable to make high school subjects practical in the broadest 
sense of the term, it is frequently impossible, and sometimes 
undesirable to attempt to show the relation of a topic or a 
subject to the business of earning a living. 

In discussing the application of mathematics to occupations in the 
world outside the school, D. E. Smith says, — "The actual amount of 
algebra needed by a foreman in a machine shop could be taught in 
about four lessons, and the geometry of mensuration that he needs 
can be taught in eight lessons at the most. The necessary trigonom- 
etry may take eight more." 

Examples may be negative, as well as positive, so to speak. 
That is, the teacher may illustrate what the correct fact or 
procedure is by showing what it is not. There is, however, 
danger of illustrating through "bad examples." The danger 
consists in what the psychologist terms "negative suggestion." 
The learner may take the bad example as a copy. For this 
reason a rule that should always be followed is, — "Never call 
an error to the attention of a pupil or a class unless such an 
error is frequently made." 

Recently the writer visited a class in commercial English in which 
the whole period was used in the correction of a poorly written business 
letter taken from the text. There is no justification for such pro- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 27 1 

cedure. Frequently he has found classes in English expression de- 
voting considerable portions of their time to stating the right forms 
for the erroneous expressions found in the exercise books. When 
such exercise books are used, the high school teacher should take 
pains to have the frequent and common errors alone corrected. Un- 
usual errors, and extreme niceties of language should not be called to 
the attention of the average high school pupil. 

Illustration may be secured by contrasting examples. When 
the contrasts are perfectly clear, and are carefully emphasized, 
so that confusion is not likely to result, this is an effective 
method of making concrete the subject-matter of the lesson. 

For example, in the teaching of Latin, differences in declensions 
and conjugations are often emphasized by contrasting examples of 
the various forms. In teaching history, the patriotism of Lincoln 
may be contrasted with the self-seeking of Napoleon. In the teach- 
ing of stenography the formation of similar outlines may be made 
more evident by showing the particulars in which they differ. In 
the teaching of algebra the various methods of factoring may be set 
over against one another; and so on throughout the entire curriculum. 
Indeed, in a sense, contrast is an essential part of all likeness. There 
is no difference without a resemblance, and no resemblance without a 
difference. The purpose of the lesson and the psychology of instruc- 
tion determine in any individual instance which shall be emphasized. 

(g) Illustration through oral suggestion. — In an earlier part of 
the present chapter we pointed out the fact that the teacher 
need not present to the pupil an object or a representation of 
an object in order to illustrate the matter at hand. It is some- 
times more striking, and generally easier, to call up some familiar 
scene to the imagination of the pupil than it is to present it 
physically to the view. The teacher who is fertile in illustrations 
of this sort is generally an effective teacher. 

A common form of oral suggestion is by analogy. The sub- 
ject for consideration is made more intelligible by calling to 



272 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

the learner's attention some familiar fact or process with which 
he is acquainted. 

This is a form of illustration employed in history. For example, 
political parties in Rome are illustrated by political parties in the 
United States; personal liberty in Greece is compared with liberty 
in America; the Great War is discussed with reference to our own 
Civil War. In these instances the facts compared are of the same 
order, so to speak, and dififer only in details. They are in a 
way partial examples, rather than thoroughgoing analogies. In this 
resemblance with difference lies a great danger. The pupil may con- 
sider the illustrations as complete examples of that which the teacher 
is attempting to clarify, and may identify all of the conditions of the 
illustration with those which are illustrated, and thus get an entirely 
wrong idea of the topic under consideration. For this reason, illus- 
tration through analogy in which facts of one order are compared 
with facts of a totally different order is sometimes more effective. 

An excellent example of analogy of this type is given by Judd ^ 
and taken from a class in high school physics in which the instructor 
was attempting to clarify the methods of the transmission of heat. 
"The instructor began by furnishing the students with the imagery 
necessary to enable them to picture to themselves the molecules and 
their relations. He asked them if they had ever noticed the way in 
which bricks are carried in the construction of a building from the 
supply point to where they are to be used. By questioning the class 
he brought out the fact that there are at least two entirely different 
ways in which the bricks may thus be carried. In one case a line of 
workmen is formed and the bricks are passed directly from one to 
the other along the line. In the second case the workman takes a 
hodful and goes the whole distance. With this analogy in mind, he 
gave some simple demonstrations to show that in some cases the heat 
which is applied to substances, such as iron, is passed rapidly from 
molecule to molecule. . . . On the other hand, in the case of water 
there is no rapid transmission of heat from molecule to molecule, 
but heat must be carried by a change in the position of the heated 
water particles." 

1 Op. cit., p. 325. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 273 

Oral suggestion may, of course, take other forms than that 
of analogy. There is a large scope for exemplification through 
recalling to the pupil concrete instances of the facts and prin- 
ciples under consideration. In the preparation of the daily 
lesson the high school teacher should attempt always to have 
ready a few such examples taken from the experience of the 
class. There is no subject in the curriculum in which such 
examples cannot be found. The anecdote is another impor- 
tant means of illustration, particularly in discussing literary 
and historical personages. Sometimes it is possible to use the 
fable, particularly in certain phases of moral instruction. 

It should finally be remembered that whatever the form the 
illustration may take, it should be an important aspect of the 
lesson. Teachers should constantly seek to vivify their instruc- 
tion by apt and clarifying examples of what the text-book pre- 
sents, and what the class is considering. It is easy to deal with 
generalities; it is a comparatively simple matter to give a rule, 
or to state a fact; but to give the rule point, to make the fact 
meaningful, is a vastly different matter. Yet no teaching that 
is worthy of the name stops with the statement of the rule, or 
the 'presentation of the fact. Illustration is not merely a fine 
art in teaching, it is an indispensable means of making teaching 
effective. Many teachers use illustration ineffectively; few high 
school teachers over-illustrate. 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD — ADDING NEW KNOWLEDGE 
THROUGH STIMULATION OE THOUGHT 

Reasons for Stimulating the Pupil to Think. — The state- 
ment is frequently made that one of the most important objects, 
if not the chief object of instruction, is to develop in the learner 
an ability to think. There are at least four main reasons that 
can be urged in support of this statement. They are as follows: 

(a) Thought is an aid to memory. — If the object of learning 
were merely to impress the memory, thinking would have an 
important function, because of the fact that anything that is 
thought out makes a more definite and permanent impression 
on the mind than the same thing committed to memory by 
rote. If the object in teaching geometry were solely to famil- 
iarize the learner with a given number of propositions, stated 
and proved in a definite way, it would be more economical to 
require the pupils to reason out the proofs, than it would be to 
have them learn these proofs by heart. If the only value of the 
rule in algebra for squaring a polynomial were that the pupils 
could accurately state the rule, it would nevertheless be better 
for the pupils to arrive at this rule by a process of inductive 
reasoning, than it would be for them to commit it to memory 
by sheer attention and repetition. 

(b) Thought gives meaning to the mere fact. — Something that 
is thought out acquires a meaning that it could not possess if 
it were presented as a pure statement of fact. Not only is a 
rule better remembered if it is thought out than if it is merely 
"committed to memory," but in the process of thinking, the 
real meaning of the rule becomes apparent. This is one of the 

274 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 275 

chief reasons why McMurry ^ insists that the recitation should 
be in the form of the inductive development lesson, which con- 
sists essentially in formulating and applying some generalization 
on the basis of facts presented to the learner. For example, 
the pupils could quite easily learn the fact that large trade 
centers tend to develop when situated on important waterways, 
and when possessing ample railroad connections, but to know 
just what these facts signify, it is necessary for the learner to 
have arrived at the general statement from the examination and 
classification of particular instances. It is quite possible for a 
class in German to learn the rule for prepositions governing the 
dative case. Indeed, this is the common method of procedure. 
However, the significance of this rule would be greatly enhanced 
if it were formulated by the learners themselves after observ- 
ing numerous specific instances. 

(c) Thought furnishes a method of procedure by which new facts 
may be acquired, and by which new methods of procedure may be 
initiated. — ^This is the chief function and the essential value of 
the thought process. If the learner could not think he could 
never meet a new situation intelligently. He would be obliged 
to trust to the "blundering method" in acquiring new knowl- 
edge, and in coping w^ith novel conditions. A high school pupil 
who learns to solve an original in geometry acquires by his 
efforts not only a better memory for and a better understanding 
of this one original proposition, but he thereby gains a method 
of procedure which will help him in the solving of all similar 
originals; the learner who has mastered a construction in Latin 
in one particular instance W\\\ be able to use the knowledge 
thus acquired, in understanding similar constructions that he 
may meet later. 

(d) Thought developed in one field of learni7ig toids to give the 
learner ability to think in other fields. — This statement is fre- 
quently made, and often passes unchallenged. Indeed, the 

1 Op. cU, 



276 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

developing of the ability of the learner to think in general is 
held to be the chief objective of education by many. In recent 
years, experimental psychology has made it apparent that the 
acquisition of an ability by practice in one field does not neces- 
sarily mean that this ability can be used in fields in which it 
has not been acquired. Certain it is that the pupil who has 
learned to think in solving originals in geometry has not learned 
to think equally well in marshaling facts in history, or in de- 
vising experiments in chemistry. However, it is doubtless true 
that the pupil who has learned to think well in one field of learn- 
ing has thereby acquired an ability to think that goes beyond 
this subject. It is reasonable to assume that his methods of 
thinking have been strengthened in all subjects that have recog- 
nized similarities to the subject in which he has learned to 
think. 1 

It is evident from the reasons discussed above that the teacher 
should consider it one of the chief objectives of instruction to 
develop in his pupils the capacity to think in the subject that he 
teaches. However, it is the common opinion of competent ob- 
servers of high school classes that this objective is realized much 
less than can reasonably be expected. Apparently many teachers 
are on the whole content to spend most of their time in testing 
the knowledge of the pupil for facts that he has learned from 
the text-book, in drilling the pupil until he becomes more 
nearly perfect in what he has thus acquired, and in adding to 
his store of knowledge by statements and explanations made 
during the class period. Such teachers require little genuine 
reaction on the part of the pupil, and seem to regard the educa- 
tive process as the addition of information to the mind of the 
learner by a method which is chiefly receptive. That this pic- 
ture does not accurately represent all teachers of high school 
subjects, probably not the majority of such teachers, and that 
the number of those who are content with the "pouring-in" 
* See Chapters X. and XVI., pp. 207-209 338, 339. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 277 

process in teaching, is clearly becoming less, are among the 
most encouraging signs in the field of high school education of 
the present time. 

The Essential Elements that Enter into the Thought 
Process. — Since training the pupil to think is to be considered as 
one of the chief aims of instruction, it is important for us to 
consider at this point the essential elements that constitute the 
thought process and the conditions under which thought arises. 

(a) TJtought is stimulated only when a genutTte difficulty con- 
fronts the learner, — ^The chief function of thought, as we have 
already seen, is to enable the learner to meet a novel situation 
intelligently. The situation is novel in that it has not been 
encountered before, at least in the identical way in which it is 
now present. Since it is novel it cannot be met entirely by old 
and habitual methods. There are two ways of meeting a novel 
state of affairs. Some learners will attempt to overcome the 
difficulty in a purely haphazard way, and by blundering on 
until they hit upon a solution by mere chance; more intelligent 
learners will attempt to discover some method of procedure in 
the light of their past experience that will aid them in meeting 
the present difficulty. It hardly need be said that the blunderers 
rarely solve their problems, and when they do by mere chance, 
the solution is sometimes not recognized and seldom leaves a 
permanent impression. 

The blundering method of meeting a difficulty finds one of its best 
illustrations in the manner in which many persons attempt to solve 
a mechanical puzzle. They twist, turn, and manipulate the device in 
various ways, hoping that by some chance the puzzle will solve itself. 
Sometimes when they succeed in doing the trick, they have not the 
slightest idea of how they accompUshed the result. On the other 
hand, the expert in solving puzzles studies out the situation in ad- 
vance of actual manipulation; he at once eliminates certain move- 
ments as of no avail and restricts his endeavors along promising lines 
of procedure. When he actually tries to solve the puzzle through 



278 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

manipulation, he carefully observes each step that he takes, and by 
this means is enabled to retrace the false moves that he makes, and 
to confirm the correct moves. 

The methods (or rather lack of methods) which many pupils use 
in attempting to solve school problems resemble those employed by 
the blunderer in working out mechanical puzzles. Such pupils have 
no definite idea of procedure. They stumble on, now doing this, 
now that, but seldom accomplishing anything worth while. Many 
teachers of algebra and geometry would be much surprised if they 
should observe in detail the manner in which their pupils "study" 
their lessons. 

(b) The difficulty that confronts the learner must he a real dif- 
ficulty for him, — In presenting to the pupil material in the form 
of a problem, the teacher must make sure that this material is 
a genuine problem for the learner. If the problem is too dif- 
ficult, if the pupil cannot comprehend it, if he lacks the mental 
content necessary for its solution, then such a problem is of no 
value. On the other hand, if it requires no genuine thought, if 
it is so easy that an imtnediate and ready response can be given, 
then for the pupil it has no value in stimulating rational ability. 
Further, if the pupil takes no interest in the problem as it is 
presented, if he does not care what the solution is, then again 
for such a pupil the material has no thought value. For these 
reasons care must be taken by the teacher to give pupils problems 
of reasonable difficulty, but not beyond their comprehension 
and ability to master, and problems that have for the pupils 
some intrinsic or extrinsic interest. 

Probably in no subject in the high school curriculum are materials 
which are presented in the form of problems, less real incentives to 
thinking than in geometry. The form of geometry is so strictly 
logical that the belief is general that it is an excellent means of train- 
ing the "reasoning powers" of the learner. The fact that in outward 
structure the propositions in geometry are based on a rigorous de- 
ductive procedure should deceive no one acquainted with the minds 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 279 

of high school pupils. In the first place, the logic is in many instances 
too difficult for the average pupil to follow, and in the second place, 
most pupils do not care actually to solve a problem in geometry. 
They are quite content to "learn" the proof, or to solve originals 
by the assistance of their parents, or of older or more capable pupils. 
"It seems almost impossible," writes a beginning teacher, "for the 
class as a whole to do problems; they cannot even do them when they 
are done out for them in the text-book. Most of my pupils are of 
such poor mentality that they could more profitably spend their time 
on something else than geometry." An extreme and pessimistic 
statement, doubtless; and yet there is more than a modicum of 
truth in it. Geometry, algebra, and similar subjects afford a most 
valuable training in reasoning for the capable and ambitious pupil. 
For the dull and slothful their usefulness may be questioned. If they 
are to be taught as subjects that develop reasoning abilities they 
must be so taught that those who take these courses shall find in 
them real problems that they can solve with reasonable effort. 

Teachers sometimes go to the opposite extreme in presenting to 
their classes problems that are so easy that they have no real dif- 
ficulty and require no thought. Often high school teachers who 
pride themselves on asking "thought questions" put queries to their 
classes that require for the pupils of good and average ability no 
deliberation at all. In the writer's experience such questions are not 
infrequently asked in history. The teacher should beware of the 
too glib and ready answer to his "thought questions." To think 
means to deliberate. The immediately obvious answer is not the 
thoughtful answer. 

(c) Correct thinking must he based on definite knowing. — One 
reason why many of the problems that are given pupils are 
beyond their ability to handle is found in the fact that the pupils 
have no definite comprehension either of the language used or 
of the concepts presented. The teacher of history who asked 
his class to consider in studying an assignment in regard to the 
life of the Athenians the cardinal virtues of the Greeks, and who 
later asked his pupils in English history to write a paper on the 



28o INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

psychological tendencies in the reign of Elizabeth may be ex- 
cused in part because of the fact that he had but recently gradu- 
ated from college, and had not as yet learned how limited a 
vocabulary the average boy or girl possesses. The same excuse, 
however, cannot be offered for an older, more experienced 
teacher, who found to his surprise that his class failed totally to 
understand the significance of Boyle's law because they did 
not know the meaning of the term "inversely." 

Much of the teaching of physics, chemistry, and biology would 
be made more simple if the instructor took greater care in developing 
the meaning of the scientific terminology used. This terminology 
must be employed, but it has no value unless the words are based on 
an adequate understanding of their significance. In any class in which 
technical terms are used, frequent tests should be given to determine 
to what extent the pupils understand the meaning of the terminology. 
Obviously, merely defining the terms, particularly in the words of 
the text-book, is no adequate test. The pupils must be tested in the 
actual use of these terms in appropriate connections. In this way 
the teacher will be training his class in accurate concept-building, 
which, if not an essential part of reasoning itself, is the prerequisite of 
all thinking. 

(d) Correct thinking requires that the problem he clearly en- 
visaged and definitely kept in mind. — ^No difficulty can be solved 
unless that difficulty be accurately comprehended and con- 
tinually held in attention. The pupil must be able to state the 
problem and understand what it means if he is intelligently to 
undertake its solution. It frequently happens that high school 
pupils do not know in any concise manner what they are trying 
to accomplish in working out an example in algebra or a proposi- 
tion in geometry. It is much better for the pupil to discover 
the problem, and to state it himself than it is to have the teacher 
formulate the problem for him, or to have him learn it in the 
words of the text-book. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 281 

In this particular the teaching of geometry is emphatically at 
fault in many instances. A common method is to refer the pupil to 
the text for the statement of the propositions that are to be demon- 
strated. Often when this is not the method, the teacher states the 
propositions himself. In every instance when it is possible, the 
teacher should develop the propositions to be taken up in the next 
lesson with the class, and have the class state these propositions 
themselves.^ Many of the propositions found in the texts in geometry 
can be seen to be true by the pupils, before they are actually demon- 
strated. It should be the aim of the instructor so to present these 
propositions, by the careful drawing of figures, and by comment on 
them, that the class will be led to perceive the spatial relationships 
involved. Later, the teacher may ask them logically to prove that 
these relationships hold true. For example, it is not a difficult matter 
for the pupil to perceive that the greatest angle in a triangle lies op- 
posite the greatest side. Not until he has seen that this is true, should 
he be asked to prove it logically. In a similar way pupils may be 
shown that the number of triangles into which any polygon may be 
divided equals the number of sides of the polygon less two, and so on 
throughout a long list of propositions. The value of the learner's 
formulating his own proposition in geometry is not alone due to the 
fact that this procedure lies at the basis of correct reasoning, but also 
to the further important circumstance that such formulation em- 
phasizes the intuitional and constructional phases of geometry, phases 
which are most vital to the real comprehension of the subject. It 
should be remembered that the logical method in which geometry is 
commonly cast is not geometry but logic. Real geometrical insight 
is not merely or largely a matter of deductive acumen. 

The discovery and formulation of problems by the pupil in 
such subjects as geometry, algebra, and physics is as important 
for him as is their actual solution. Problem-stating in these 
subjects should be made a major aspect of the work. It is 
possible in other subjects, also, to lead the pupil to raise ques- 
tions and set problems. This is particularly true of history, 

* For an example of this procedure, see Appendix C, p. 42 if. 



282 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

the social sciences, and literature. In history, for example, 
two different kinds of problems may be formulated by the 
pupil. He may ask a question which raises a problem as it 
existed for the people of whom he is studying, or he may ask a 
question that embodies a problem for him. Examples of prob- 
lems of the first type are the following, — "The Greeks grew 
olives from which they made oil; grapes from which they made 
wine. They needed wheat, but they did not produce it. What 
were they to do?" *'Fabius could not meet Hannibal success- 
fully in open battle. What kind of strategy could he follow 
under such circumstances?" Examples of problems of the 
second type are, — "Why is it that sailors and traders make 
more progress than do agricultural people?" "What nations 
today owe their expansion to the necessities of trade?" "Can 
a small state develop a better civilization than a large state?" 
It should be observed in passing that pupils in submitting ques- 
tions of the second type should be taught to frame problem 
questions that are actually problems for them, and not merely 
problems in form, or questions the definite answers to which 
they already know. The pupil who asked the question concern- 
ing sailors and farmers doubtless knew the answer before the 
question was framed. 

As has already been said, the learner must not only have the 
problem before him clearly envisaged, he must further keep it in 
mind. Every step of his procedure in its solution must relate 
itself to the meaning of the problem. For this reason thought 
is very largely a matter of active attention. He who solves the 
problem, must constantly have an eye on the goal. In doing 
this two desirable results will be accomplished. In the first 
place, mere attention to the problem tends to suggest methods 
of solution. It is a law of mental activity that concentration 
of attention on an idea brings up various related ideas. To 
an extent a difficulty works itself out if once the mind carefully 
considers the difficulty and constantly holds it before itself. It 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 283 

is a common experience that when we begin to think about 
something, all sorts of relationships are discovered that 
before were unsuspected. All things are fish for the mental 
net. 

In the second place, active attention directed toward the 
problem under consideration will tend to exclude from con- 
sideration all irrelevant ideas that may arise. The skilful 
teacher says to the pupil, — "What is your problem? Does 
this fact fit into what you are trying to show? If it does, select 
it; if it does not, discard it." 

Sometimes the relation of ideas to the main problem takes the form 
of the subsumption of particulars under a general rule or principle. 
This is a common form of problem-solving in language. The teacher 
of Latin, for example, is constantly asking such questions as these, — 
"What is the future passive tense of rego: the future passive participle 
of capio?'^ Here the object of such questions is to accustom the 
pupil to give the particular form its appropriate ending not in terms 
of some specific instance remembered, but in terms of a general prin- 
ciple relating to the paradigms of the third conjugation verbs. The 
importance of relating the particular to the general and the general 
to the particular will be discussed more in detail later. It applies, 
clearly, to every subject of instruction, although the most frequent 
examples are found in the sciences and the languages. 

Another kind of thought relation of a less rigorous nature is met 
with frequently, particularly in history and literature. It may be 
described as the connection of a fact of knowledge with some co- 
ordinate fact of knowledge. An observer of a high school class gives 
a common example of this as follows, — "In Miss 's class in his- 
tory one pupil asked the question whether Charles V. of Spain was 
the same person as Charles VIII. of France. A comparison of dates 
showed the pupil that the latter died before the former was 
born. This type of reasoning through the comparison of facts 
is identical with using common sense; some people, many peo- 
ple, must be trained to exercise this most simple of rational 
processes." 



284 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(e) Correct thinking requires selection and analysis of those 
facts and ideas that relate to the problem that is before the learner. — 
For accurate thinking it is necessary not only that the pupil 
clearly understand and keep in attention the problem to be 
solved, but that he further critically analyze in terms of his 
problem those suggestions that tend to arise in regard to it. 
Here the teacher has a most important function to perform. 
The novice in thinking cannot be left entirely to his own devices 
in criticising and evaluating the ideas that present themselves. 
Unless he is particularly capable he will get nowhere, if he is 
not guided in his mental processes. On the other hand, the 
teacher may go too far and help the pupil too much. Obviously 
pupils differ greatly in their ability to do independent thinking, 
and the teacher must to a large extent consider pupils as indi- 
viduals, with individual needs; he cannot hope to adapt his 
instruction in this particular to the capacities of the class as a 
whole, if such a class is not selected on the basis of ability. 
Unfortunately this arrangement is rare in the typical high school 
class. For this reason, teaching pupils to think is largely a 
matter that should be left to periods of supervised study, if 
such periods exist in the school. 

Selection and analysis of materials relating to a problem, or to a 
topic of study are necessary in all subjects of instruction. Courses 
that require more than mere rote memory, and most courses do, de- 
mand discriminating judgment. For example, in algebra miscel- 
laneous exercises in factoring require that the pupil discover the 
particular method that applies to each example. Various means will 
suggest themselves, and the correct procedure must be determined 
before the work can be accurately done. In the assignment of such a 
lesson the teacher can with advantage call the attention of the class 
to the methods that have already been mastered; this is the first step. 
Then the teacher will point out to the pupils the fact that the various 
examples must be studied to discover under what cases of factoring 
they appear to belong. Perhaps at this point certain suggestions will 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 285 

be asked for from the class. However, care should be taken not to 
tell the pupils just how to do each particular example; otherwise the 
entire value of the exercise as a training in analytical reasoning is lost. 
In this case, as in all others of a similar nature, the teacher should 
go no further than to suggest possibilities from which the individual 
members of the class must select the appropriate method. Those 
who lack skill and ability to do the work after such suggestions have 
been made,, should be instructed singly. In discussing this question, 
Judd says: — "It is a fundamental mistake to give to students all of 
the examples under a given principle with a definite statement to the 
efTect that all of these are examples of a single type. The student 
fails to get the mental training in this case which is desired. He 
merely cultivates a kind of dexterity of manipulation which is very 
far from a genuine application of a scientific principle." 

The principles that have been brought out in discussing factoring 
in algebra, clearly apply to other miscellaneous exercises in algebra; 
they further apply to original work in geometry, and to all other 
mathematical exercises of the same type, whether pure or applied. 
In science a similar situation confronts the teacher when an experi- 
ment is to be performed in which a certain result is desired, but in 
which the exact method of reaching it is not known to the pupil. 
Various w^ays in which similar results have been accomplished in the 
past must be brought to the attention of the class, and they must 
select the proper method themselves, and test it out. Unfortunately 
in the teaching of laboratory science in most high schools, what may 
be termed "original experiments" are seldom given. In this respect 
there is a resemblance between the formal methods of teaching 
geometry, and of teaching the sciences of physics and chemistry. 
There should be more originals in geometry, if its teaching is to be 
justified; there should be less formal work in science, and more actual 
investigation on the part of the pupils. 

In the teaching of language, selective thinking is not of such a 
rigorous type as in mathematics and the sciences, but it is a neces- 
sary part of all instruction except that of the purely informational 
and habit-forming type. Both in translation and in composition 
numerous instances occur in which discrimination and analysis are 
required. Similarly in history and literature, any teaching that goes 



286 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

beyond the mere emphasis on memory and drill on facts, involves a 
thought process that has in it the same essential characteristics that 
are required in solving a problem in mathematics or in performing 
an investigation in science. A particular illustration of this is found 
in the attempt to teach the study of history by topics, and sub-topics. 
The majority of pupils coming from the elementary school have a 
very vague idea of how to read history and general literature with 
an intelligent comprehension of their significance. Either they at- 
tempt to commit the entire assignment to memory in a mechanical 
way, or they in a haphazard manner recall the materials most interest- 
ing to them, without regard to their real values. These pupils must 
be taught how to study with intelligent discrimination. 

One favorite means employed by many high school teachers in the 
accomplishment of this end is the development of the outline. Here 
again the instructor may do too much, as well as too little. Those 
teachers who spend a large amount of time in dictating outlines to the 
class to be employed in the study of assigned topics err, as has already 
been said, in using the class period for work that gets comparatively 
small returns in real mental activity. Further, if the instructor does 
this work for the class, he fails to develop their ability to think for 
themselves. The pupil learns to rely on the teacher to work out his 
problems for him. On the other hand, if the teacher does none of the 
work, and throws the class entirely on its own responsibility, a large 
number of the pupils will never develop the ability to outline the 
work for themselves. Hence, a compromise method is necessary. 
At the beginning of the course the teacher must suggest topics and 
sub-topics. Gradually, however, he must throw the responsibility 
of this work on the individual members of the class. Some of the 
outlining may be done by the class as a whole in a codperative lesson. 
However, in this case care must be taken that the actual thinking 
is not confined to the most capable individuals. The less gifted pupils, 
in terms of their abilities, must do their own work. 

In the newer subjects of the curriculum selective thinking is not 
so obviously employed, as in the studies of the more "academic type." 
Nevertheless, it finds a place even here. In the commercial courses 
there are rules and principles of procedure that demand the exercise 
of discriminative judgment. Stenography, in particular, requires 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 287 

mental processes that are similar in many respects to those that are 
found in the study of a foreign language. In the manual training 
and household arts courses much depends on the skill of the hands, 
but to be merely "finger wise" is not enough. 

In discussing the problem of the organization of the materials 
of thinking, Parker ^ offers several practical suggestions which 
we can to advantage keep in mind. He says, — "To stimulate 
and assist pupils in carrying on reflective thinking the teacher 
should: 

I. Get them to define the problem at issue and keep it 

clearly in mind. 
II. Get them to recall as many related ideas as possible by 
encouraging them: 

1. To analyze the situation. 

2. To formulate definite hypotheses and to recall 
general rules or principles that may apply. 

III. Get them to evaluate carefully each suggestion by en- 

encouraging them: 

1. To maintain an attitude of unbiased, suspended 
judgment or conclusion. 

2. To criticise each suggestion. 

3. To be systematic in selecting and rejecting sugges- 
tions, and: 

4. To verify conclusions. 

IV. Get them to organize their material so as to aid in the 

process of thinking by encouraging them: 

1. To 'Hake stock" from time to time. 

2. To use methods of tabulation and graphic expres- 
sion, and: 

3. To express concisely the tentative conclusions 
reached from time to time during the inquiry." 

^ Op. cil., pp. 199-200. 



288 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

Of these principles set forth by Parker we have already dis- 
cussed some in the preceding pages of this chapter. Others 
will be touched upon later. 

Induction and Deduction the two Fundamental Forms of 
Reasoning. — ^In most discussions of thinking and of the rational 
processes a careful distinction is made between inductive and 
deductive methods of handling individual instances and bring- 
ing them under general principles. For purposes of emphasis 
these processes are treated as quite separate, and sometimes 
they are set over against each other as if there were some funda- 
mental antagonism between them. As a matter of fact these 
two processes are simply different aspects of the same funda- 
mental tendency of the human mind, which may be stated as 
follows: When any new fact is presented, or any situation exists 
that is in any way novel, there is a tendency on the part of the 
human individual to treat this new fact, or react to this novel situa- 
tion in terms of past experience, — which past experience assumes 
the function of a general principle of procedure in all similar cases. 
On the other hand, when a principle of procedure is presented, the 
human individual has the teitdency to envisage this general prin- 
ciple in terms of concrete examples. In other words, it is a ten- 
dency of the human mind to find the general in the particular 
and the particular in the general. Sometimes the identification 
of the particular instance with a general principle, and the op- 
posite is made so readily that it approximates pure habit, and 
in such cases the thought process is reduced to a minimum; 
sometimes such identification is laborious and time-consuming, 
in which case elaborate thought processes are in evidence. The 
identification of the particular instance as an example of a 
general principle, and the envisagement of the general principle 
in terms of a particular instance are both illustrations of the 
conceptual process. Such a method of thinking is clearly a 
matter of mental economy. The particular instance, as a mere 
instance, is without significance, and possesses little value either 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 289 

for thought or behavior; on the other hand, the mere knowledge 
of a general principle (if indeed it can be called knowledge under 
such circumstances) is barren. Since this is true, every teacher 
should aim in his instruction to give meaning to particular in- 
stances by showing their general bearings, and to make concrete 
and definite all general principles through clear-cut and definite 
illustrative examples. 

The conceptual process, which as we have seen consists essen- 
tially in the identification of the particular with the general, 
when expanded develops into a definite rational procedure. 
On the one hand, when a particular instance arises the meaning 
of which is not clear, and when the learner by comparison of 
this with other similar instances finally arrives at some com- 
prehensive principle that explains and identifies it, such a process 
is induction. Often the general principle may be known, but 
not identified with the particular fact; sometimes, however, 
the general principle has to be discovered. In the former case 
we have the mere identification and relation of facts already 
known; in the latter, an actual addition to knowledge. Ob- 
viously the great scientific inductions are of this second type. 

An example of the identification of a particular instance under a 
principle already known, but not at once apparent, is illustrated by 
the following instance cited from an observation in a high school 

class in literature: "Yesterday I visited the class of Mr. J , who 

was teaching Macbeth,^' writes the observer, "and I was interested 
to note that he was trying to do something more than to teach the 
pupils mere facts; he was trying to make them think and feel. One 
thing that he aimed to do, and it seemed to me actually succeeded 
in doing, was to make them comprehend the meaning of the 'knock- 
ing at the gate.' I believe he accomplished this better, — that is, 
made his class really get some genuine understanding of this dramatic 
situation and som.e feeling for it, — than did our college instructor, 
in the class of which I was a member. Our instructor talked a long 
time about this scene, referred us to various commentators, and gave 



290 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

us a fund of information, but I never actually appreciated the true 

significance of the situation until yesterday, when I visited Mr. J 's 

class. This is how Mr. J got at the vital meaning of the scene: 

"A boy was called upon to read the passage and he did it effec- 
tively. I think he was chosen by the teacher because he could read 
well. 'How does that scene make you feeP? asked the instructor. 
One member of the class thought it was 'funny,' and some others 
agreed. A bright girl said that it was too serious to be merely funny. 
It made her feel as if something was going to happen. Others were 
also of the same opinion, but no one could quite tell why it seemed 
terrible, as well as 'funny.' 

"I concluded at this point in the lesson that nothing further could 
be obtained from the class in regard to the significance of the scene, 
but the instructor was resourceful. He related an instance of two 
men remote from civilization, lifelong friends and companions; of 
the temptation, greed, and treachery of the one, who deserted the 
other and intentionally left him to die because of the desire to secure 
the entire right in a rich mining claim that they had found. All went 
well with the wrong-doer until he returned to his own city. Here 
for the first time he realized what he had done, and although there 
was no fear of detection or punishment for his crime, his conscience, 
awakened by coming back to his home, would never give him a 
moment's peace; yet when he was remote from acquaintances, friends, 
and associates, in a wild country where he knew few people and had 
little regard for them, his evil deed had not seemed evil to him. 

"By means of this incident, and several others of a similar nature, 
the class were led to see that the world in which we live sets the 
standard for our acts and holds us accountable for them. When we 
are remote from this world, when we are by ourselves, we may be 
overcome by our own selfish interests, forget our accountability, and 
lose our distinctions between right and wrong. When, however, we 
come back to this world, or as in the case of the 'knocking at the 
gate' this world comes to us, then arrives for us the real tragic situa- 
tion. 

" It should be said that this principle of human thought and 
feeling was not stated in the abstract manner in which I have pre- 
sented it, but this was the general purport of the discussion. The 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 29 1 

point that impressed me was that the class were led to discover the 
significance of the scene themselves by a process of inductive reason- 
ing in which several particular instances ingeniously selected by the 
teacher, were made the basis of a generalization. In a vague way 
the class knew this general principle, but in this lesson it was raised 
from the twilight of subconscious feeling to the clear light of definite 
awareness. This part of the lesson occupied fifteen minutes. To 
some it might appear a waste of time, but I think that it was worth 
while. It had given to many of the pupils a taste of appreciative 
criticism of a great work of art; it had framed in concrete terms a 
fundamental moral law, and it had afforded as excellent a training in 
rational procedure as I have witnessed in any class in the high school, 
that it has been my privilege to observe. Indeed, I am of the opinion 
that much of the instruction in mathematics and science falls far 
below this particular lesson in English as a training in inductive 
reasoning." 

In rigorous scientific reasoning the inductive process at times 
leads to the discovery of new and important laws and facts 
that before were unknown. When this principle of thought is 
applied to classroom instruction, it has sometimes been called 
the "Method of Discovery." Of this method Thorndike ^ 
says: — "Children are never left to discover the sciences and 
arts as they were originally discovered. They are always given 
advantageous knowledge and help in seeing what the problem 
is. But, even with these modifications, the requirement that 
pupils actually rediscover facts is still absurd. ... Of course, 
save for the few individuals of great gifts, they do not, no 
matter what we pretend, rediscover important facts. . . . The 
method of discovery at its best is, in fact, a very bad title for 
methods in which the pupil is left to his own efforts so far as 
he can be without too serious detriment to the quantity and 
quality of the information and skill that he gets. ... At its 
worst, the method of discovery is a name for pretense that the 

^ Education y pp. 195-196 (1912). 



292 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

child is cultivating powers of originality and self-reliant inves- 
tigation, while at the same time the facts are being smuggled 
into his possession as truly as in straightforward * telling.'" 

While it is true that pupils, even those of the high school age, 
seldom discover for themselves unaided any truth of importance, 
and while such truths even if discovered by them, have pre- 
viously been reached by others, nevertheless, in a halting and 
imperfect way many pupils may employ inductive processes 
of thought and may get some insight into what scientific rigor 
and scientific methods mean. If they acquire little more than 
an attitude of examining facts and employing caution in arriv- 
ing at conclusions, this is surely worth while. 

An example of the method of scientific discovery as employed at 
times in high school instruction is found in the following class exercise 
in physics. The aim of the lesson is to give the class knowledge in 
regard to certain facts concerning magnetism. In this particular 
instance the teacher has not assigned to the class a lesson in a text 
that tells about these facts, neither has he informed the class con- 
cerning them. Of course, one of these methods would be the most 
direct and economical way of arriving at the result, if all that was de- 
sired was to impress for a brief time these facts on the minds of the 
learners. It is the purpose of the instructor, however, to help the 
pupils think for themselves, and further to impress as emphatically 
as possible on the minds of his pupils those matters which he con- 
siders important in the topic on magnetism. Hence, under his direc- 
tion, the instructor attempts to lead the pupils to a discovery of these 
facts. The method that is used is first to present in a clear and em- 
phatic manner several instances of the facts that he wishes the class 
to discover; second, to lead the pupils to analyze and compare the 
individual instances in such a manner that the important element in 
these instances will stand out and become evident to aU; third, to 
have them state definitely just what this element is. For example, 
one of the specific matters to be taught in this lesson is that the mag- 
netic needle points north and south, and when set in motion, tends 
to come to rest in that position. This simple fact could, of course, 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 293 

easily be told in a few words, and demonstrated in a brief time. Per- 
haps two or three minutes would be sufficient to do this. The in- 
structor, however, employs nearly a third of the class period in lead- 
ing the pupils to find out and definitely formulate this fact. On his 
table are six standards, and attached to each of these, swinging freely, 
is a magnetic needle of such size as to be seen easily by all members 
of the class. These needles are all set in motion, and the class is asked 
to observe what happens when they come to rest. It takes some time, 
and some ingenuity on the part of the instructor to lead the class to 
see the simple fact that when they are at rest they all point in the 
same direction. Further time is consumed in discovering that the 
direction is north and south, and additional time in verifying the 
observations by subsequent experiments. This part of the lesson 
concludes with a consideration of the practical significance of this 
fact and its value in daily life.^ 

At times the inductive processes of reasoning are directed 
not toward the formulation of scientific principles, but rather 
toward the awakening of fundamental attitudes, feelings, and 
interest. In such cases, the result is what may be termed an 
*' appreciative judgment. ' ' 

As an example of the judgment of this type, the following instance 
may be cited: In a large class in first year English in a city high school, 
the pupils were reading Bullfinch's Age of Fable. They showed great 
interest in the narrative as a whole. One boy, however, remarked 
that he wished that the class might not be compelled to read poetry. 
He said that he did not like poetry, and there seemed to be a general 
agreement on the part of the rest of the class that poetry was dull 
and uninteresting. "Tell me," said the teacher, "the name of some 
poem that you remember." The boy thought for a moment, and then 
answered: "Old Ironsides." "Ah," said the teacher, "Old Ironsides 
at anchor lay," and so on, repeating some of the most stirring lines 
of the poem. "Is there not another boy who can remember the 
name of a poem?" he next asked. Several hands were raised, and 
Sheridan's Ride, The Chambered Nautilus, The Village Blacksmith, 

* For further examples of inductive reasoning see Appendix C, p. 4i8f. 



294 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

and Curfew Shall Not Ring To-night were mentioned. In each in- 
stance, the teacher quoted brief passages from these poems, and 
brought out their most stirring quahties. The next ten minutes of 
the recitation period were spent in a similar manner. Over fifty 
poems were mentioned, and all were eager to make suggestions. It 
was because of lack of time, rather than lack of interest that the 
teacher was compelled to turn to other aspects of the work. He con- 
cluded this part of his instruction with the remark: "I see that you 
boys do not care for poetry." "Yes, we do!" said half a dozen in 
chorus, while the rest nodded their approval. ^ 

^ The aim of the lesson outlined on pp. 426-429 of Appendix C is in 
part to develop appreciative judgments. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD — ^ADDING NEW KNOWLEDGE 
THROUGH THE INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT 
LESSON 

The Five Formal Steps of Instruction. — In the history of 
educational method, the *' inductive development lesson," as 
it has been termed, occupies an important place. It finds its 
best exemplification in the "five formal steps" of the Herbar- 
tians. These five steps are: (i) Preparation, with statement of 
the aim of the lesson. (2) Presentation. (3) Comparison and 
Abstraction. (4) Generalization. (5) Application. Although 
the methodology in connection with this device has been ap- 
plied principally to the elementary school, it can be used with 
certain adaptations to advantage in high school instruction. 

The Principles of these Five Formal Steps may be Applied 
in a Modified Form to High School Instruction. — (a) // is 
true of all grades of mstruction that the mind of the learner shoidd 
he prepared in advance to receive the new material that is to be pre- 
sented, — Surely the high school teacher should see to it that the 
members of his class have the mental background to compre- 
hend a new principle in algebra, a new formula in chemistry^ a 
new^construction in Latin, or a new set of facts in history. His 
pupils carinot think economically and profitably unless they 
have the necessary knowledge and comprehension to do such 
thinking. Every teacher should adopt as an important rule 
of procedure, — Prepare the pupil for all new material that is 
to be presented to him. 

(b) It is equally necessary for the pupil of whatever grade to 
know the main aims of the recitation period. — There are, or should 

295 



296 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

be, certain objectives in each class exercise, and in any lesson 
of the thought type it is necessary for the learner to have be- 
fore him the chief problems involved. "Today," the teacher 
of physics tells his class, "we are going to take up certain facts 
in regard to the transmission of heat, and attempt to formulate 
the various ways in which this transmission may take place." 
"The main points that we shall emphasize in this lesson in the 
Sketch Booli^'' the teacher of English informs his pupils, "are 
Washington Irving's humor, and his love for country life. I 
want you to notice carefully all those passages that seem humor- 
ous to you, and to decide what makes them humorous. I want 
you likewise to observe Irving's descriptions of rural scenes and 
customs, and decide as well as you can what qualities make these 
descriptions so striking." "Keep in mind during this hour," 
says the teacher of German, "the use of the prepositions in 
the exercises that you translate. I want you to note particularly 
what prepositions govern the accusative and dative cases, and 
at the end of the hour I shall expect you to give me a rule based 
on what you have observed." So it should be in each and every 
recitation that seeks to do more than merely to test for knowl- 
edge and to drill. Call to the attention of the pupil the goal at 
which the lesson is aiming, and insist that the pupil think out 
the essential facts and principles in terms of this goal. 

(c) Facts must he considered in their relations. — The pupil must 
do more than keep in mind the general aim of the lesson, in 
order to marshal properly his facts and give them significance. 
Facts in any subject when presented should not be considered 
as isolated facts. They must be compared with facts of a similar 
order so that their general bearings may be seen. This is secured 
by analysis and abstraction. In order that the essential ele- 
ments of general importance may appear clearly the teacher 
must assist the pupil at this point in the inductive process. 
Thorndike ^ gives several important suggestions in this connec- 

^ Education^ pp. 174-175. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 297 

tion. He sums up methods of analysis under the following 
laws: (i) Know what the element is that the pupil is to be able 
to jespond to, and what response he is to make to it. (2) Dis- 
sociate the element. Do not expect it to emerge into clear 
thought of itself. (3) When it is possible, present the element 
itself before presenting the gross total situations in which it 
inheres. When the clement cannot exist apart from concomit- 
ants, — (a) Begin with cases in which it is clear and impressive, 
(b) Have the pupil compare these with attention directed toward 
their elements, (c) Have him contrast with them cases similar, 
save in the absence of the clement. (4) Provide an instructive 
name for the clement. (5) Have the pupil respond to the ele- 
ment in new situations. 

The significance of these laws will be made clearer by an illustra- 
tion taken from the field of high school instruction. The teacher of 
German is attempting by the inductive method to impress on the 
minds of his pupils the fact that the preposition in is followed by the 
dative case after verbs of rest and by the accusative case after verbs 
of motion. In the first place the teacher must have in mind just what 
he wishes his pupils to do. Is the aim merely to have them translate 
the preposition properly when they meet it in their reading; is it to 
have them use it in written composition; in oral discourse; is it all 
of these three? It is clear that the emphasis will be somewhat dif- 
ferent in terms of these different aims. In one instance the situation 
that they are to respond to is the reading situation, in another the 
writing situation, in the third the speaking situation. 

When the teacher has decided just what the response is that he 
wishes the class to make, then he must present the situation in such 
a way that the particular fact that he desires to impress will stand 
out distinctly. It is not enough that instances be presented in which 
the preposition is used; it must be dissociated from the general con- 
text so that it will be clearly recognized. The pupils will not find 
out the principle involved if left entirely to their own resources. Not 
only should the teacher make the principle definite and clear but he 
should present it as free as possible from other matter. Hence he 



298 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

will call the attention of the class to brief sentences which illustrate 
what he wishes to emphasize, rather than to complicated sentences 
in which many other facts and laws appear than the one that he is 
trying to teach. While it is impossible to give examples that do not 
have other concomitants, these concomitants can be made relatively 
few and simple. 

To make the instances clear and impressive, he must use sentences 
with verbs that obviously express either motion or rest, such as: 
Ich gehe in die Stadt; ich lauje in das Zimmer, on the one hand, and 
ich Ueihe in der Weite; ich ruhe in der Hangematte, on the other. 
Further, the pupil must compare the various sentences, with particu- 
lar attention to the meaning of the verbs used, and the cases of the 
nouns that follow the preposition, contrasting carefully the cases in 
which a verb expressing motion is used, with those peases in which 
the verb expresses rest. When this is done the class should be able 
to formulate in a crude way the general rule, after which it should be 
stated with exactness and given a definite name by which it may sub- 
sequently be referred to. 

Finally, it is extremely important that the facts arrived at should 
be put into use by the pupil as soon as possible. If the aim is to secure 
correct translation, numerous sentences illustrating the principle 
should be provided. The practice should follow immediately after 
the principle is formulated and definitely stated. If the aim is to 
teach the use of the preposition in written discourse, then, of course, 
the appropriate exercises should be at hand. In a similar way, if 
facility in conversation is the aim the practice should take this form. 
In any instance something should be done by the pupil. 

(d) Generalizations must follow from comparisons. — Compari- 
son and abstraction, the third step in the inductive develop- 
ment lesson, are never ends in themselves. They lead to the 
formulation of rules, principles, methods of procedure, — in a 
word to generalizations, the fourth step of the inductive process. 
Generalization is a fundamental tendency of the human mind. 
It is crude and inadequate as a rule, however. The teacher can 
perform no more important service for the pupil than to habit- 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 299 

uate him in forming accurate and useful generalizations. The 
high school instructor would improve the quality of his teach- 
ing if he would frequently ask himself this question, — ''What 
significant principle, what important rule, what comprehen- 
sive fact have I worked out with the class in this recitation? " 

(e) It must always be kept in mind that generalizations are 
valuable in proportion as they are useful. Hence, they must be 
at once commandeered into service. — Application is essential to 
complete the inductive procedure. This is the fifth and final 
step. It is to be remembered that application may take various 
forms, all of which are important. In the manual training and 
household arts courses, a method of procedure is taught by the 
instructor and then the learner puts it into use by actually 
making something in which this method is employed; in mathe- 
matics the rule is applied in the solving of problems and the 
working out of examples; in science the application expresses 
itself in the laboratory technique; in language it is shown in 
accurate translation, correct speech, and careful composition; 
in literature and history in the interpretation of individual in- 
stances in terms of general principles. 

It is further to be remembered that application is important 
not only because it is useful, but for the added reason that 
through application the general principle is made more definite 
and certain. It is only through use that meanings are acquired. 
As McMurry points out,^ stopping with general principles may 
result in a mere verbal mastery of a subject. This application, 
he urges, should follow as soon as possible the mastery of the 
general principle. In the professional schools, practical courses 
are always connected with theory, and in this fact lies one of 
the chief educational advantages of such schools. In the ele- 
mentary school and the high school, direct and immediate 
application is more difficult, yet some form of application is 
necessary even here, for if knowledge and skill are not applied 

» Op. cii., Chapter IX. 



300 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

as far as possible in school, there inevitably arises a divorce 
between school and life. This is sure to work harm. Of course, 
this application need not always be "practical" in the narrower 
sense of the term, but the application to be most effective should 
in some way relate to human life and human interests. 

In the High School it is Seldom Possible to Employ the 
Inductive Development Lesson in Detail, and with Formal 
Rigor. — The inductive development lesson, as we have already 
said, has been worked out as a method of elementary instruction, 
and it is here that its formal application is most in evidence. 
Rarely will the high school teacher find it desirable to use this 
method in all of its phases in the course of an hour's instruction. 
Nevertheless, there are frequent opportunities when various 
aspects of it may be used to great advantage. The following 
instances of its partial employment will illustrate its value: — 

In a class in physics the instructor is presenting the principle of 
the lever for the first time. He begins by shov/ing to the class a lever 
with an adjustable fulcrum, and with detachable weights at each end. 
Through a demonstration of the apparatus, and by comparison of the 
results obtained by changing the position of the fulcrum and the 
weights, he leads the class to formulate for themselves the most 
essential principles involved in the operation of this machine. The 
last ten minutes of the period are spent in testing out these principles 
to discover whether they apply to further cases. In the following 
lesson the different classes of levers are demonstrated and the pupils 
led to distinguish between these classes, and to name various applica- 
tions of these three classes as they are commonly found in everyday 
tools and appliances, such as the balance, the crow-bar, and the oar. 
Subsequently the knowledge acquired concerning the operation of the 
lever is used as a preparatory step in presenting the operation of the 
pulley. 

An observer reports as follows concerning a class in geometry, — 
"The remainder of the recitation was spent in developing the lesson 
inductively. The class had just begun the study of figures, — triangles, 
quadrilaterals, etc. In the place of having them learn the definition 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 301 

of such figures, which in my experience is the common practice, the 
teacher employed this ingenious method of presenting the general 
facts to her pupils and leading them to see for themselves the essential 
principles involved. During the previous recitation she had directed 
her pupils to cut out of paper, isosceles, equilateral, right, and scalene 
triangles; quadrilaterals, parallelograms, rhomboids, squares, and 
similar plane figures. These were not named, however, or their prop- 
erties discussed at that time. The work was simply in preparation 
for what was to follow at the next class period. On this day, with the 
aid of the materials previously prepared, the class were comparing, 
contrasting, and classifying the various kinds of plane figures that 
they had cut out, making their own rules, and framing their own 
definitions in their own words. They were next led to judge areas, 
cutting the paper figures when necessary, and also dividing them by 
folding them, or marking them with the pencil. I was impressed with 
several details in this class. In the first place, every member was 
attentive, interested, and curious. In the second place, all seemed to 
understand what the lesson was about. The meaning of the various 
plane figures seemed evident to all. And in the third place, they 
were eager to apply the knowledge that they had gained in various 
ways, some in working out problems in regard to the properties of 
triangles, polygons, etc., and others in finding some practical ap- 
plication of what they had learned to matters outside of the class- 
room. On the whole, these lessons that I attended in geometry 
seemed to me to be the most worth-while lessons that I observed in 
the entire school. Generally, as I have observed the teaching of 
geometry in other high schools, and other classes, I could not say 
this." 

An observer of a class in history writes, — "About three-quarters 
of the whole period was more or less concerned with the inductive 
development of thought. The facts cited were brought up rather 
to show their general significance than to impress them upon the 
minds of the pupils, as mere facts. The discussion centered around 
the Hundred Years' War. The instructor started with some simple 
idea as presented by some member of the class, and gradually through 
question and answer in which the majority of the class participated, 
he arrived at the larger thought desired. When some of the more 



302 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

general principles had been worked out and stated, the class were 
asked to point out how these principles apphed to the Great War. 
In a way the lesson was crude, for the pupils were often halting and 
clumsy in their expressions, but I felt that, nevertheless, they got a 
good deal out of the recitation, much more, I believe, than if they had 
been merely told the facts, or had read them in a book." 

The Deductive Development Lesson; the Final Step. — 

The final step in the inductive development lesson is, as we 
have seen, application. This step in itself is rather of the na- 
ture of deduction than induction. When this step is amplified 
and emphasized, it has been set over against the inductive 
lesson of which it is the natural culmination, and has been 
termed the deductive development lesson. Like the inductive 
lesson, it calls forth thought on the part of the pupil, and brings 
the general principle and the particular instance into relation, 
so that each may be better understood. Unlike the inductive 
lesson, the general principle is not arrived at by the learner 
wholly or partly through his own initiative. This principle is 
stated by the teacher or formulated in the words of a text- 
book. For this reason, this procedure lacks the completeness 
that the inductive lesson possesses when it is followed strictly 
through the five formal steps. Further there is a danger that a 
general principle when given to the pupil will not have the signif- 
icance that it should possess, and which will of necessity attach 
to it when this principle is formulated by the learner himself. 

The Deductive Lesson Possesses Certain Obvious Ad- 
vantages over the Inductive Lesson. — ^This makes its use often 
desirable, and sometimes necessary. 

(a) In the first place, the inductive process is often long and 
time-consuming. — ^There is seldom time during the ordinary 
class period to carry out any thorough-going inductive process. 
Adequately to develop even the most simple principles requires 
relatively extensive knowledge and careful comparison and 
analysis. 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 303 

(b) In the second place, and chiefly for the reasons just spoken 
of, there is slight opportunity for the learner to arrive at any scien- 
tifically valid indtcctions. — The pupil has not sufficient facts 
at his command to justify any ultimate conclusion. What ac- 
tually occurs is that the instructor selects carefully the most 
significant facts and arranges them in such a way that they 
suggest the conclusions desired. As a rule he takes a few typical 
cases and leads the pupil to see the general laws embodied in 
these cases. This is all very well, and entirely justifiable in 
itself. There is a danger, however, that the pupil will gain the 
impression that in actual scientific induction the process is as 
simple and direct as it is made for him by the teacher. The 
pupil must not be habituated in forming hasty hypotheses and 
" snap judgments. ' ' 

There is particular danger of this happening in such a subject as 
history. Sometimes the "thought questions" asked cannot pos- 
sibly be answered by the pupil on the basis of any genuine thought on 
his part. Often they are merely suggestive questions, the answers to 
which are obviously given in the form in which they are stated by the 
teacher. Neither pupil nor teacher should deceive himself into as- 
suming that they involve genuine reasoning on the part of the learner. 
Some years ago a series of texts in history were prepared with the 
purpose of leading the pupils to arrive at historical principles by 
considering the significance of certain facts presented in the form of 
original sources. The pupils were to read these fragments selected 
from various quarters and then make general conclusions on the 
basis of these facts. The attempt could be nothing but a failure. 
Often no conclusions of any scientific worth could be drawn from 
the materials as presented, and when such conclusions could be 
drawn, they were for the most part suggested directly by the form 
in which the questions, framed to guide the pupil in his study of these 
fragments, were stated. 

(c) ht the third place, and for reasons brought out in the above 
discussion, many of tJie inductions that the pupil is asked to make 



304 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

are extremely fragmentary and inconsequential. — ^They lead no- 
where in the larger thought development, and afford no funda- 
mental insights into the wider principles involved. Finally, 
there are many principles and far-reaching laws that have been 
formulated through long and extended research and analysis 
that pupils could not possibly discover for themselves, even 
under the most skilful direction of the teacher. It may be urged 
that such general principles are for this reason beyond the com- 
prehension of the learner. This, however, by no means follows. 
The human race has received from its men of genius many prin- 
ciples of the greatest practical importance which are constantly 
being applied; yet these could not be derived by the majority 
who use them. A principle to have meaning must be applied; 
it need not necessarily be derived by the one who intelligently 
uses it. Obviousty this statement applies to laws in physics, 
formulae in chemistry, rules in language, and so on. They 
must be furnished to the pupil because he requires them, if he 
is to pursue the subjects to which they belong. 

Phases of the Deductive Development Lesson. — Bagley * 
has divided the deductive lesson into four phases or steps; 
namely, — (i) the data, (2) the principles, (3) the inferences or 
conclusions, and (4) the verification. In the first place the 
teacher recalls to the mind of the pupil those facts that are 
necessary in order to set forth the general principle which they 
illustrate. Then from this principle certain inferences are made 
as to facts that seem to be true. Finally, the pupil is required 
to find out if the facts that appear to follow from the general 
principle actually exist. 

An illustration of the deductive process as outlined above is found 
in the high school in its typical form in such a subject as algebra or 
geometry. The data, as Bagley points out, consist of the statement 
of the problem; the principles, in the general processes and rules that 

^ The Ediccative Process, page 308 (1905). 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 305 

govern its solution; and the verification, in the conclusions reached 
in the form of a proof that tests out the accuracy of the results ob- 
tained. For example, the teacher shows the class various polygons 
divided into triangles and recalls to their minds the fact that the 
number of triangles in any polygon is expressed by the formula n - 2. 
The question is then asked: — "How many triangles are there in a 
pentagon; in a hexagon; in an octagon? etc." Verification may con- 
sist in requiring the class to test out their answers by construction of 
the figures under discussion. 

In physics the teacher reviews with the class the facts in regard to 
heat capacity, and asks them to state the fundamental laws (previ- 
ously learned). Then he asks the following questions, — "Which 
would be the more efficient foot-warmer, a rubber bag, containing 
five pounds of water at 80° c, or a five pound block of iron at the 
same temperature?" This step of application can be easily supple- 
mented by a verification of the conclusions reached through a class 
or a laboratory experiment. Still keeping in mind the general prin- 
ciples previously brought out, the teacher asks, — "Will a drop or 
two of alcohol feel cold or warm to the hand? — Will the ground be 
more or less deeply frozen when it is covered by a blanket of snow?" 
In a lesson in which the effect of heat on the expansion and contrac- 
tion of metals is the topic for formulation and discussion the follow- 
ing question is put, — "What would be the eft'ect of stringing tele- 
graph wires tight in winter and loose in summer? What would be 
the effect if the opposite were done?" Verification here can be easily 
secured through a class or a laboratory experiment. 

In a class in history with Solon's reforms the main topic of con- 
sideration, the general fact of the cancellation of debts is considered. 
The teacher explains that any deliberate attempt to cheapen cur- 
rency, as, for example, the move to introduce the free and unhmited 
coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to i, is in effect a partial cancelling 
of debts. With this principle in mind the class is asked what effect 
a great addition to the gold supply of the United States would have 
on the debtor class and on the creditor class. "Has there been such 
an increase in recent years?" is the question next put. "What would 
you expect the effects to be?" is a further query. When various 
answers have been given and discussed, and when it is seen that one 



306 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

effect would be an increase in the price of commodities, the teacher 
refers the class to selected collateral readings, in order that the con- 
clusions reached may be verified or disproved. 

In a senior class in literary appreciation and criticism, typical ex- 
amples of the poetry of Poe, of Lowell, of Longfellow, and of Whittier 
are presented and the fundamental characteristics and differences 
are pointed out. Later other examples of poems by these authors 
are given, and the pupils are asked to decide in the case of each poem 
the particular author who composed it. They are subsequently sent 
to the library and required to verify their judgments. 

In the languages, the instances of the application of rules and prin- 
ciples to specific instances are numerous. Indeed, the greater part 
of thinking in these subjects is of this simple deductive type. A class 
learns a rule and is required to apply it in an exercise in oral or in 
written composition. Verification consists in a criticism and correc- 
tion of the exercise. In a translation exercise a similar method is 
followed. Such questions as the following are numerous: "In what 
case is viris'/ " "Why do we have the ablative case here? " " How do 
you know that this statement is in direct and not indirect discourse?" 

A more extensive attempt to. apply general principles to particular 
instances is found in the following lesson in Latin, the plan of which 
is stated by the teacher as follows: — "The aim of this lesson is to 
emphasize the application of these rules and principles, namely, — 
the uses of the ablative of separation, of description, of comparison, 
and of difference; also the complementary infinitive, negative and 
positive clauses of result, and negative and positive clauses of pur- 
pose. The class is to find in the assigned lessons in the text one 
English and one Latin sentence to illustrate each of these points as 
enumerated above. In the class period, pupils will be called upon to 
translate sentences selected by them and to explain the rules involved. 
These sentences will then be discussed and corrected, and the judg- 
ment of the pupils verified or amended as the case may be." Ob- 
viously the method followed here in Latin is often employed in other 
foreign languages and in English as well. 

The Two Functions of the Deductive Lesson. — Bagley in 
further discussion of the deductive lesson points out that it 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 307 

serves two distinct functions, namely, — U may anticipate a 
fact, or it may explain it. In the illustrations given above, the 
simple questions in language are clearly of the explanatory type. 
The aim is to bring to the attention of the learner the reasons 
why these particular instances are as they are. Examples of 
the explanatory type of deduction in high school science are 
given by Bagley as follows: — 

"In botany, for example, the principles of chemistry and physics 
are, or should be, called upon to explain the facts of plant physiology. 
Suppose a lesson to have as its subject-matter the upward movement 
of sap through the root and stem of a plant. The principles of osmosis 
and capillary attraction are at once suggested. The inference will be 
that some structure of the plant fulfills the conditions required for 
the operation of these principles. Needless to say, this topic may also 
be approached inductively; but if the principles of osmosis and capil- 
larity have already been developed in physics, why redevelop them in 
botany? Here is a fact: the movement of a liquid in opposition to the 
law of gravitation. What principles have we discussed that will 
cover this phenomenon? Under what conditions? Then we must 
infer that these conditions must, in some way, be fulfilled by the plant 
structure. Let us examine the structure and see how they are ful- 
mied." 

On the other hand, the lesson in regard to heat, outlined 
above, is largely of the anticipatory type, since it anticipates 
facts rather than explains facts already given. The anticipatory 
type is on the w^hole a more stimulating form of the deductive 
procedure, since it involves the element of curiosity. 

Bagley calls attention to the fact that the anticipatory ques- 
tion has been criticised as consisting largely of shrewd guess- 
work. "The fallacy of this position," he writes, "lies in the 
fact that 'guessing' is assumed to be emphasized in the deduc- 
tive lesson. As a matter of fact it is not the guessing that is 
made to appear important in the eyes of the pupil, but the 
verification. Nor is it guessing itself that is dangerous, but 



3o8 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

rather the failure to recognize that a deductive inference is, at 
best, only a guess." It should be further added in this connec- 
tion that the skilful instructor takes great pains to see that his 
questions are based on such clear principles and such abundant 
data that they do hot stimulate guessing in the objectionable 
sense of the word, guessing that is based on no adequate con- 
sideration of the materials under consideration, guessing that 
is mere haphazard, random, and chance. To this sort of guess- 
ing science is strictly opposed; for science guesses only in the 
sense that its conclusions are not absolute, but always open to 
modification and revision. When the pupil has acquired the 
attitude of scientific "guessing," he has achieved a result of no 
mean importance. 

Inductive and Deductive Processes of Thought are not 
Always Possible or Desirable. — In the preceding discussion in 
regard to the use of inductive and deductive methods in class 
instruction, emphasis has been placed on their value, and on 
the desirability of their use more widely than at present in high 
school instruction. Perhaps at this point a word of caution 
should be uttered to the over-zealous teacher who is convinced 
that the chief aim of the recitation period is to lead the pupil 
to think; and who for this reason spends the greater part of 
the class hour in discussing principles and drawing conclusions. 
Such a teacher should remember that there are in school prac- 
tice obvious limits in the use of inductive and deductive methods. 

The fact has already been pointed out that the inductive 
procedure is long and time-consuming; that within the limits 
of the class hour, it is difficult adequately to develop an induc- 
tive process; that it is seldom possible for the learner to arrive 
at any scientifically valid inductions, and that his inductions 
are often fragmentary and inconsequential. For these reasons, 
a cautious teacher will use the inductive method with discre- 
tion, and not strive to formulate with his class too many prin- 
ciples and rules, the imderstanding of which is often possible 



THE METHODS OF THE CLASS PERIOD 309 

simply by their statement and adequate illustration. He will 
further keep in mind the fact, in using both inductive and de- 
ductive methods of instruction, that principles without facts 
are barren and useless. There is no royal road to thinking. 
Reasoning depends as much upon resources as upon methods. 
The resources of thinking are facts, which the pupil must know 
accurately if he is to employ them intelligently. No valid con- 
clusions can be arrived at in history, in literature, in language, 
in science, in mathematics, — unless the learner knows his facts, 
and to know them, he must meet them again and again, and 
have them impressed on his mind often through the laborious 
process of rigorous drill. At this point, the teacher must decide 
what facts are necessary in order that his pupils may arrive 
at an adequate understanding of the subject-matter of the 
course. And when he has decided upon what these necessary 
facts are, he must use every means in his power to make them a 
permanent content in the minds of these pupils. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 

The Question a Vital Part of the Recitation. — In Chap- 
ter XI. reference was made to the comments and questioning of 
the teacher as an important part of the oral lesson, and the fact 
was emphasized that the teacher as a rule consumes too much of 
the class period himself, and leaves to the pupil too small a 
share of the time devoted to the recitation. It was further 
pointed out that the comments and questions of the teacher 
are often fragmentary, haphazard, and without definite point. 
However, it should never be forgotten that well-organized and 
carefully planned questions are a vital part of the class exercise, 
indeed the most vital part. The efl&ciency of instruction is 
measured in a large degree by the nature of the questions that 
are asked and the care with which they are framed. No teacher 
of elementary or secondary subjects can succeed in his instruc- 
tion who has not a fair mastery of the art of questioning. The 
most efficient teacher is more than a drill-master, a hearer of 
lessons, an expositor of facts and principles. He leads his 
pupils to think and to understand by arousing in them self- 
activity through the stimulus of his questions. 

The Question has a Three-fold Function. — In discussing 
the nature and value of the question, we should keep in mind 
the fact that it has a three-fold function. 

(a) In the first place^ the question serves the important purpose 
of testing the knowledge of the pupil. Such questions, whether 
oral or written, should be framed with care. Not all facts are 
equally important. Many are merely incidental, some are 
trivial, while still others, valuable when considered in and of 

310 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 3 II 

themselves, are too difficult for the pupils to comprehend, or 
require too much time and effort in their mastery. Some are 
important for pupils living in certain localities, and relatively 
unimportant for pupils who live in others. In framing questions 
to test the knowledge of the pupil the teacher must carefully 
evaluate them in terms of the ultimate aims of the subject and 
the more immediate aims of the lesson. 

In the writer's experience, the asking of incidental and trivial 
questions is a common fault in the teaching of literature. The 
teacher who asks many questions of this type lacks the stimulus 
and the corrective influence of large objectives. The big and 
vital problems have escaped him; consequently the facts that 
he seeks to bring out relate to the smaller matters. The mean- 
ing of words, the significance of unimportant allusions, the 
construction of phrases, sentences, and paragraphs, the detailed 
outline of the exposition or the narrative, — these loom large in 
his mind. They are the most obvious matters, the ones nearest 
at hand, and they require the least definite planning. Often, 
too, they are the very type of question that he has become 
familiar with during his college course. They doubtless have 
a place, but surely a subordinate and unimportant place in the 
teaching of literary comprehension and appreciation. 

The writer has tabulated the kind of fact questions asked during 
the course of five class periods devoted to a consideration of Scott's 
Lady of the Lake. On the average, forty questions in each recitation 
were devoted to facts relating to the story, many of them going into 
details as to just what happened to this or that person in the narra- 
tive. Such a minute knowledge would have signified something if 
any subsequent use had been made of it, but the facts were treated 
as mere facts and left quite in the air. The teacher justified this type 
of questioning by asserting that it was one of his main aims to have 
the pupil "know the story well." In a second class that was study- 
ing Burke's Conciliation, sixty minutes out of a total of two class 
periods of ninety minutes were consumed in a elaborate test on the 



312 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

construction of the speech, and of the remaining thirty, twenty were 
spent in testing the class on the historical setting. No adequate con- 
ception was given as to what the speech really signified as a human 
document, few vital facts were brought out concerning its bearings 
on the world history of the time, the author himself, or its relation 
to the American Revolution. The teacher said that his chief aim was 
to correlate the work with exposition and argumentation, and to 
afford the pupils an opportunity for analysis. These aims, of course, 
were not without a certain justification, which, however was con- 
siderably weakened by the fact that the assignment was to be studied 
essentially as a masterpiece of literature. In a third class in "litera- 
ture," a total of one hundred and eighty minutes were devoted to 
the teaching of Julius Ccesar. During this time three hundred and 
seventy-six fact questions were asked, distributed as follows: — ■ 
meaning of words, 117; historical facts, 92; syntax, 43; outline of 
story, 42; rhetoric, 23; prosody, 21; mythology, 19; plot, 13; con- 
nection with present life, 6. It would be interesting to know to what 
extent questions of this character are motivated by the necessity 
of padding. 

In another class in English, however, in which one hundred and 
twenty minutes of teaching were observed and in which one hundred 
and three questions were asked the number of fact questions was 
only fifty-nine. Fifty of these served as a basis for developing sub- 
sequent thought questions. Only nine were of the "incidental" type. 
In a second class (in history) observed for five recitation periods, the 
number of questions was one hundred and eighty-six, an average of 
less than forty questions for each class period. i\.ll but seven of the 
fact questions asked were used as a basis for developing the main 
topics of these lessons. 

Questions in history are often at fault because the teacher 
makes no distinction between the relative worth of the facts 
recorded in the text-book. A critic teacher who has had under 
his charge many novices in the teaching of history finds that 
one of the greatest difficulties that he encounters in training 
these beginning teachers in a proper method is due to the cir- 
cumstance that they do not easily recognize the difference be- 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 313 

tween the important facts and those of little significance. In 
the writer's experience, older teachers are not altogether free 
from this fault. 

In the course of a lesson observed by the writer on the development 
of a spirit of national unity in Greece the main theme was lost sight 
of through over-emphasis of small details. Ninety-five questions 
were asked in the class period, and ninety-two concerned facts touched 
on in the text. Of these, twenty-five related to the names of poets, 
the dates of their birth and death, the places in which they lived and 
fragmentary and uncertain details of their lives. Thirty-two ques- 
tions of a similar nature were asked concerning the early Greek philos- 
ophers. Twenty questions were devoted to the Eleusinian mysteries 
and touched on stories from mythology, and the nature of the Eleusin- 
ian rites and ceremonies. The remaining questions concerned details 
of the Olympian games. In all of these questions only one related 
definitely to the service of the poets, the philosophers, the religious 
festivals, and the athletic contests in giving the Greek people a 
common national spirit. The facts were treated as mere facts, all 
of the same importance and significance. 

In the teaching of history it is not uncommon for the instruc- 
tor to attempt to bring out facts that are important, but which 
the pupil cannot easily comprehend. The writer of the his- 
torical text has included these facts because they seemed to 
him an essential part of the complete narrative, as doubtless 
they are. However, their importance for the pupil is a matter 
somewhat apart from their importance in the historical account. 
No matter what their value as such, they have no place in the 
lesson if they do not serve the ends of instruction. 

It is not uncommon to hear such questions as the following asked by 
teachers who are thinking more of the subject than they are of the 
capacities of the boys and girls that they are teaching, — "What did 
Plato mean by 'ideas'?" "Why is he considered more of a theologian 
than a man of science?" "What are the essential features of a 



314 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

Corinthian capital?" "What are the main principles in the Roman 
conception of law?" 

In teaching science it is necessary to keep in mind the local 
environment in selecting the facts to be emphasized. Teachers 
often lose sight of the value of bringing the science studied home 
to the pupil. In an agricultural community the facts in physics 
and chemistry should have some reference to soils and their 
treatment; in a manufacturing community a different set of 
facts should be emphasized.^ 

In a class in general science, the topic for discussion was fisheries 
and their economic importance. The locality was in close proximity 
to a large fishing industry. However, the teacher discussed cod fish- 
ing off the Great Banks, oyster culture in the Chesapeake Bay, salmon 
fishing on the Pacific coast, and barely mentioned the fact that within 
a few miles of the school there were hundreds of fishermen engaged in 
supplying the local markets with the fish with which the pupils were 
acquainted. 

In a class in botany, the lesson considered plants useful to man. 
A great deal was said about tropical fruits, the cacao tree, the tea 
plant, and the olive tree. On the other hand, only passing mention 
was made of the pea, the potato, the apple, the pear, and the plum. 
The general impression left on the class seemed to be that the plants 
of value to man were mostly located in remote regions of the world, 
far away from the life with which the pupils were intimately ac- 
quainted. In another class observed by the writer, an opposite 
method was employed, the teacher selecting for special discussion the 
huckleberry among fruits, and the bean among vegetables. 

(b) In the second place the question serves the purpose of making 
emphatic facts already known to the learner. — This type of ques- 
tion does not aim primarily to discover what the pupil knows. 
It seeks to impress upon him more emphatically that with which 
he is already acquainted. It is a method of oral drill. It can- 
not be justified as a method of instruction unless it realizes 
* See Chapter XI., p. 232. 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 315 

ends other than those of mere drill for the pupil who is being 
questioned, since it is extremely wasteful when directed toward 
the individual as distinguished from the class. As we have 
already seen, the drill question must be asked in such a way 
that it secures the mental response of the group as a whole, 
not merely of the pupil who is reciting. Further than this such 
a question finds an added justification when it emphasizes dif- 
ficulties and mistakes that a class as a body frequently make. 
These mistakes must clearly and definitely be brought to the 
attention of all of the pupils in such an emphatic manner that 
all may distinguish between what is correct and what is incor- 
rect.^ In order that the entire class may participate in this 
drill, it is desirable that the question should be put to the class, 
and after a brief pause some individual should be called upon to 
reply, others being held responsible for his mistakes. Further, 
these drill questions should be distributed rapidly among the 
various members of the class, no one pupil being called upor. to 
give an extended answer. The same procedure should be fol- 
lowed when brief oral questions that aim to test knowledge, are 
asked. Indeed, there is often little distinction between the drill 
question and the question that seeks to test the knowledge of 
the pupil. 

Drill questions find their most common exemplification in 
classes in foreign language. In many recitations of this type a 
large part of the class period is occupied in drilling individual 
pupils orally in vocabularies, idioms, paradigms, and rules. 
We have already seen in Chapter X. how great the waste may 
be in exercises of this sort. When the whole class is alert and 
eager to learn, as sometimes is the case in a superior group of 
pupils, or in a class in a vocational subject, such as stenography, 
this type of drill is effective. However, under any circumstances 
the teacher should strive to make his questions serve a wider 
purpose than that of merely testing and training the individual. 

* See Chapter IV., p. 66. 



3l6 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

As a rule, better results are obtained when the response to drill 
questions is made by the entire class in a written exercise. 

(c) In the third place, the question serves the purpose of stimu- 
lating thought. — This should be the chief function of the oral 
question. The skilful teacher seeks by this means to stimulate 
the entire class in order that they may arrive at new facts and 
principles through their own initiative. In contrast to the fact 
question and the drill question, the thought question requires 
reflection and deliberation. The resporise to a fact question 
or a drill question should be ready and immediate; the response 
to a thought question should be a delayed response. A ready 
response to a thought question indicates that for the pupil 
responding, the question is in reality not a thought question. 
Obviously there are all degrees of thought questions, ranging 
frcvTi those that require but a moment's hesitation to those 
ths . demand genuine deliberation. Thought questions should 
be v^^ked not only by the teacher; they should be asked by the 
pupib as well. In other words, the employment of thought 
questions by the teacher should lead to a general participation 
on the part of the class in the discussion of the most important 
problems of the day's lesson. When this takes place, we find 
the "conversation method" of instruction, as it has been called. 

Many thought questions are so merely in form. Miss Stevens ^ 
says in this connection, — "If you ask teachers of history why they 
are teaching it, the most customary answer is, that 'history de- 
velops judgment.' In hundreds of classrooms where I have made 
observations of the questioning, I have found very few questions 
so framed by teachers of history that they called for any individual 
judgment. ... I have found such questions as this: 'Was the king 
right in imposing the stamp tax upon the colonists?' This sounds 
like the appeal for a possible judgment by the pupils, but it cannot 
be a real judgment when the pages of all of the texts distinctly reveal 
marked censure of the king. 'In what respects would you call the 

1 Op. cU., p. 59. 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 317 

War of 1 81 2 a second War of Independence?' appears to be a ques- 
tion involving the pupil's judgment; but when the text-book lesson 
prepared at home contains the sentence, 'The War of 181 2 has been 
often and truly called the Second War of Independence, which should 
be understood to mean not merely independence of other nations, 
but of the conditions of colonial life,' the answer was obviously colored 
by the author's statement, and hence it could not be a judgment of 
the pupil. It seems a paradox to say that there are times when a 
judgment question is not a judgment question, but if we attempt 
to analyze so-called judgment questions in history, we can find many 
illustrations to corroborate the statement. Analysis of the six sten- 
ographic lesson reports on history reveals the fact that, by classifying 
as a judgment question every one which could possibly involve the 
element of judgment, the highest attainment is twenty-eight in a 
total of one hundred and twenty-five, while the lowest record was 
three in sixty." 

In contrast to these facts brought out by Miss Stevens, the follow- 
ing may be cited, — In a number of classes in history the writer has 
found as large a proportion as sixty per cent, of thought questions 
asked during the hour. While many of the thought questions re- 
quired no great reflection on the part of the pupils answering them, 
they did require a mental reaction of a higher type than mere memory. 
Many teachers of history are evidently attempting to do more in 
their courses than to drill their pupils on bare facts. 

At times "thought questions" are so superficial that they 
require but the briefest and most trivial judgment. In foreign 
language classes as a rule, the questions which are asked that 
require any genuine analysis and careful deliberation are rare. 
Problems relating to the construction of words and the sub- 
sumption of particular instances under general rules are the 
ones most commonly encountered, while matters of deeper 
significance, involving insight and reflection are woefully ig- 
nored. The relatively simple linguistic judgment is emphasized, 
while the profounder judgments and insights are slighted or 
entirely passed over. 



3l8 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

In this connection Moore ^ has made the following comments: 
"I once entered a classroom while the class was engaged upon that 
passage of the oration for Archias in which Cicero attempts to make 
the thoughts of his auditors rise to the nature of the poet's mission. 
To do this he refers to 'our Ennius,' the author of the Annals, the 
father of Latin poetry, Svho calls the poets holy, for they seem, as 
it were, to be approved to us by a special gift and favor of the gods.* 
This is a tremendous saying, and I waited with eagerness to hear 
what sort of question the teacher would ask on such a passage. It 
came, 'Why is videantur in the subjunctive mood?' I visited another 
classroom in another school, while the class was reading the four- 
teenth chapter of that first book, in which Caesar tells of a conference 
which the German chieftain Divico and his retainers attended and 
how Caesar addressed them, urging them to be peaceable and to send 
him hostages as a guaranty that they would be. Whereat the German 
chieftain arose and gave expression to but one sentiment, 'Our fathers 
have taught us to receive and not to give hostages,' and with that 
broke up the conference. I waited intently for the question that the 
teacher would ask, for from that German love of liberty which would 
not submit to be crushed out by mighty Rome herself, much that 
we hold dear has come down to us, and there in that remote forest 
two majestic conflicting forces in civilization faced each other for 
a moment and expressed their opposing ideals, — and the question 
came, 'What mood follows titi?' I went into still another classroom 
in still another school where students who were just beginning their 
study of the Latin grammar were engaged in writing a synopsis of 
the verb upon the blackboard. All went well until one student com- 
mitted the mistake of attempting to write a perfect imperative, that 
disturbed the peace of the occasion. When the teacher saw it, her 
reproof took the form: 'You know there is no such form in the book. 
You must follow your authority. Watch it closely, and don't let 
this happen again.' There was no calling attention to the impossi- 
bility of giving an order today and having it carried out yesterday. 
Like Mr. Spencer's committing of geometry and Professor Mann's 
verbal repeating of the definitions of physics, what I have seen in 
many places leads me to believe that these are examples of the typical 
1 E. C. Moore, What is Education? pp. 198-200 (1915). 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 319 

teaching of Latin. They tend to convince one that we get poor 
results because we do not go after better ones." 

If this picture drawn by Professor Moore is typical, and it appears 
to be at least in part, it illustrates the fact that our teaching of Latin, 
and to a considerable extent of other foreign languages, has over- 
emphasized the necessity and the value of formal grammar and mere 
linguistic drill. The humanism of the classics has for generations 
been lost sight of by many teachers, and the idea that modern lan- 
guages are literatures, that they are human documents, giving ex- 
pression to facts and thoughts of profound interest, seems never to 
have entered the mind of those high school instructors who teach 
these languages largely as linguistic puzzles. 

Common Faults in the Questioning of High School 
Teachers. — As we have already seen, high school teachers fre- 
cfuently ask too many questions. They occupy too large a part 
of the class period, and leave too little time to the pupils. Miss 
Stevens found that in some classes as many as two hundred 
questions were asked and answered during the course of a forty- 
minute recitation. 

Questions and answers of this type are illustrated by the following, 
taken from Miss Stevens' stenographic report of a lesson on the 
Lady of the Lake: — 

Teacher. As a rule do the characters seem lifelike? 

Pupil. Yes. 

T. Which is the most lifelike one to you, Mr. J.? 

P. I think Fitz James. 

T. How many suitors had Elaine, by the way? 

P. Three. 

T. Who are they? 

P. Graeme, Rhoderick Dhu, and Fitz James. 

T. Are those men distinct, three suitors or three distinct men? 

P. Three distinct men. 

T. From the beginning has the story flagged, or has it gone on 
rapidly? 

P. I think it has gone on rapidly. 



320 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

T. No halt at any place, nothing to retard the story? 
P. No. 

Later in the same lesson the teacher asks, — ^Is it (the description) 
put in there just as a scene, or for some distinct purpose? 
P. Distinct purpose. 

T. And in this case it was ? 

P. Contrast, 

T. What other descriptions? 

P. Nature. 

T. Very much space taken up with the descriptions of nature? 

P. Yes. 

T. Have you a pretty fair idea of the country? 

P. Yes. 

The greater part of lessons of this type is composed of "rapid 
fire" questions, and abbreviated answers, for the most part 
calling for little reflection, and directed toward no particular 
conclusion. The whole procedure seems somewhat lacking in 
purpose and reveals no main objectives. Such questions are 
seldom carefully planned. They are too frequently, as we have 
previously pointed out, fragmentary, haphazard, and without 
definite point. 

In addition to the faults discussed above, the questions asked 
by teachers are sometimes to be criticised because of the fol- 
lowing errors: 

(a) The questions are not well phrased. — Teachers may ask 
questions that are not only in poor English form, but fragmen- 
tary and incoherent. Among teachers of ability this fault is 
relatively infrequent, as shown by the reading of Miss Stevens' 
stenographic reports, which are for the most part free from this 
ty^e of error. However, among young and inexperienced teach- 
ers, particularly among those who lack poise and who are un- 
duly nervous, such questions are by no means uncommon. 
While questions that are incomplete and poorly phrased appear 
much worse in the printed report than in the give-and-take of 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 321 

the class exercise, they should be reduced to a minimum. The 
beginning teacher can well afford to spend some time in advance 
of the class in definitely formulating the main questions that 
he is to ask during the recitation period. 

(b) They are repeated or rephrased. — Some teachers fall into 
the habit of repeating a question one or more times before 
pausing for an answer, while all teachers occasionally do this. 
As a habit this procedure cannot be justified, though as an 
exception for a definite reason it may be permitted. The ob- 
vious objection to this repetition is that it consumes time. The 
excuse usually offered is that it makes the question emphatic. 
However, pupils should be accustomed from the outset to 
habits of attention. They should be expected to know what 
the teacher says. If the instructor makes it a rule to repeat 
his questions the natural result is that the pupils soon acquire 
the attitude of ignoring the question when it is first asked, and 
of paying attention only when the teacher repeats his words. 
Thus nothing ultimately is gained, and much is lost. 

The following are examples of such questions, observed during 
various class exercises: 

"What would he have to pay; what would he have to pay; what 
would he have to pay?" (asked in a hurried and nervous manner). 

"Do they combine, I wonder? That's what I want to know — do 
they combine, I wonder?" (asked with emphasis and with the evident 
purpose of holding the wandering attention of the class). 

"Can you prove that, Mary? Can you prove that?" (suggestive 
of nervousness) . 

"Now can you tell me what a lever of the second class is? a lever of 
the second class, of the second class? " (evidently repeated for emphasis) . 

The rephrased question is generally asked because the teacher 
is not satisfied with the first form in which the question is put. 
Obviously it is desirable to ask a question in one form, and that 
the best. While this cannot always be done, the teacher who 
takes the time to think out before the class the main questions 



322 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

that he intends to ask, and the manner in which they shall be 
phrased, will reduce to a minimum the necessity of rephrasing 
his queries. The rephrased question, as a rule lacks clearness, 
and since it is stated in various ways often leaves the class in 
doubt as to what is intended. 

The following are examples of rephrased questions, which fortu- 
nately are not numerous in the instruction of the average teacher, 
though they are frequendy found among those of poor ability and 
inexperience: 

"How about the advantage of getting started on time? Isn't 
there a great advantage there? Doesn't it help a great deal? " 

"This is what? What have we here? What kind of an ion would 
you call it?" 

"We can say what, Ralph? Can you tell us now what we should 
say? Does that action run to completion? Does the reaction stop? " 

"How did he do that? What was the form that promise took? 
What was it called? What was it called?" 

"A calorie; does anyone know what a calorie is? Does anybody 
happen to have that in physics? Do you know under what topic in 
physics it is found?" 

"How would you charge a Leyden jar? Which end? Would you 
charge it through the tinfoil? How would you do that?" 

"What is a Leyden jar for? How does it work? What does it 
come under? Under electrostatics? What would you call it? " 

"What was the greatest achievement of Charlemagne? What title 
did the Pope confer on him?" (From Miss Stevens' report.) 

"Do you think that the Germans were very mild or gentle? Why 
do we think this battle of Poitiers was such a great benefit? Why 
was the saving of Christianity to the world better than if it had been 
converted to Mohammedanism?" (From Miss Stevens.) 

"That is just right. They were coming to reflect upon things; 
and what was another thing that went with that? As you reflect 
upon what you have done and upon what you are going to do and 
upon what your neighbors are doing, and what you think they ought 
to do, you grow wise. But what is preliminary to that?" (From 
Miss Stevens.) 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 323 

"Would that be accurate to put down everything that everybody 
told you? What was the difference between Herodotus and Thu- 
cydides? Was the man himself upright? Did he keep strictly to 
what he knew was true? " (From Miss Stevens.) 

There are circumstances under which what may be termed 
the "multiple questions" may be used as a legitimate device 
of instruction. The teacher first asks a general question intended 
merely to turn the thoughts of the class in a certain direction, 
and then asks more specific and pointed questions, only the 
last of which is to receive a definite answer. The purpose of a 
multiple question of this type is first to prepare the mind of 
the pupil, in order that he may be ready for a comprehension 
of the final question of the series. 

The following are examples of the multiple question : — Are treaties 
between nations always lived up to? Can you recall instances in 
which they have been disregarded? What justification is sometimes 
given for breaking treaties? Do you think under certain circum- 
stances it is right to break a treaty? (In the above instance, the class 
in current events knew definitely the answers to the first three ques- 
tions, which were asked by the teacher for the sole purpose of form- 
ing an intelligent basis for a consideration of the fourth.) 

Have you ever seen steam coming out of a kettle? Have you ever 
seen mist rising from damp ground or a pond at night? Is the air 
outside the kettle colder or warmer than the air inside? Is the air at 
night colder than the water on the ground or in the pond? How can 
you explain the formation of the steam and the mist? (Here again 
the replies to the first questions are obvious? It is the last question 
that requires thought). 

Have you observed in what direction these magnets point when 
they finally come to rest? What do you notice that is the same in 
the action of all of these magnets? How can you explain this action? 

(The first two questions call attention to certain specific facts in re- 
gard to the magnets. The third is the thought question, demanding 
reflective reasoning.) 



324 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(c) They are asked in a hurried manner. — ^The teacher at times 
is guilty of preventable wastes. Again, he gives the impression 
that he has not a moment to lose. He rushes on at express 
speed, permitting no opportunity for pause or reflection. There 
are occasions when "rapid fire" questions are desirable in oral 
drills and in tests on simple facts. Such questions, however, 
are never permissible when any degree of comprehension or 
judgment is called for. 

The writer has in mind particularly three teachers, in most re- 
spects of excellent ability, who largely because of extreme interest 
allowed their enthusiasm at times to run away with them. On such 
occasions they went from point to point at break-neck speed. The 
first was a teacher of history, whose chief aim was to make his pupils 
think. He asked numerous thought questions, provocative of in- 
terest, and calling forth eager responses. However, he often failed 
to give his pupils adequate time to formulate their replies, and as a 
consequence, before one point was made definite and emphatic, he 
had hurried on to another. The second was a teacher of modem 
languages, who used the direct method with unusual effect, but who 
because of his facility of expression and great interest in his work, 
failed on occasions to practice correct habits. The third was a teacher 
of English who possessed a wealth of information and an abundance 
of excellent ideas, but who in his zeal tried to impart too much dur- 
ing the forty-five minutes of the class period. As a consequence, 
there was undue hurry and bustle. He failed to make a definite im- 
pression at some important points, simply because he did not allow 
time for such impressions to sink in. These three teachers because 
of their many excellencies of disposition and intellect, were saved from 
making a failure of their work. For the mediocre teacher, however, 
such haste would end in complete disaster. 

(d) They are indefinite or obscure, — ^The pupil is forced in 
answering questions of this type to guess at the answer. This 
guessing is the result of one of two main causes. Either the ques- 
tion is asked in such a general form that the pupil has no means 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 325 

of knowing toward what specific points it is directed, or in the 
case that the general aim is evident, the facts in the possession 
of the pupil are not suflficient to enable him to give a discriminat- 
ing answer. 

The following are examples of indefinite questions due to 
the first cause: 

"What do you know about Edward the Third?" 

"What facts may we observe about this polygon?" 

"What do you see when you examine this plant?" 

"What can you say about this demonstration (in physics) that has 

just been presented?" 

"How would you try to make your Ustener feel as you feel about 

something that j^ou are describing?" 

The fault in these questions lies in the fact that the attention 
of the pupil had not been previously directed toward any spe- 
cific details concerning Edward the Third; toward any essential 
aspects to be considered in observing the polygon; toward any 
given set of traits to be noted in the examination of the plant; 
toward any logical scheme for observing the demonstration in 
physics; or toward any methods of imparting to others the emo- 
tions that the writer possesses. In the language of psychology, 
a specific problem-attitude had not been created. The pupil 
had not the proper apperceptive background on which to base 
his replies. 

The following questions taken from Miss Stevens further illus- 
trate the indefiniteness arising from a general question that has 
not a specific point to which the pupil can respond: — 

"Name all of the things in Marmion that are characteristic of the 
Middle Ages." — (This question did not bring the desired response, 
and was later rephrased, — "What things does Scott bring into this 
poem that make you feel that it is the Middle Ages and warlike 
times?") 



326 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

"What do you consider the real weakness in Marmion's character?" 
(in terms of the teacher's aim the question would have been more 
effectively put as follows: — "What do you consider the weakness in 
Marmion's character which led to his downfall?") 

"What do you think are the strong points in Marmion?" (This 
question was not answered by the pupils. Then the teacher asked, — 
" How many feel that the descriptions are capital? " Thus the teacher 
in the form of an interrogation answered his own query. It is often 
the outcome of the general question that it is finally answered by 
the teacher.) 

"What were the chief characteristics of Cimon?" (This question 
proved too general to be answered. It would have been more definite 
if it had been asked in the following form, "What do you know about 
the soldierly qualities of Cimon? " This was the real point at issue.) 

The questions that follow are examples of questions that are in- 
definite because the pupil has not sufficient knowledge to answer 
them with discrimination: — 

"What dangers are there for a people in a highly centralized form 
of government?" 

"What almost invariably happens to a conquering people who 
conquer a race greater numerically than theirs? " 

"What always becomes of a civilization when a barbarian invasion 
occurs?" 

"How can you tell good air from bad air?" 

"What influence had the life of Spenser on the character of his 
poetry? " 

"What characteristics in the writings of Hawthorne show him to 
be a master of style? " 

Such questions as these may be occasionally justified, par- 
ticularly when asked of pupils of superior ability. In all cases, 
however, when questions requiring a wide knowledge and dis- 
criminating judgment are asked they should be introduced by 
a series of carefully prepared steps, and should at times be given 
in connection with a written exercise, rather than as an oral quiz 
to be answered on the spur of the moment. Generally questions 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 327 

of this type are not answered at all by the pupils, or they are 
answered because the pupils have been told in advance either 
by the teacher or by the text-book the very replies that the 
questions seek to bring out. 

The following questions brought out few intelligent responses when 
asked as a part of an oral lesson in one division in ancient history. 
When asked in another division (one of no greater ability) as a part 
of a written test many excellent replies were received: — 

"Can you think of any ways in which the geographical position of 
the United States has influenced its development?" 

"What fault in the Roman democracy did the wars between Marius 
and Sulla show?" 

"What would the failure of Caesar to suppress barbarian invasions 
have meant to us today?" 

(e) They are leading and suggestive. — Not infrequently the 
teacher asks a question in which the answer desired is clearly 
indicated. Suggestive questions are permissible and even de- 
sirable chiefly when they are employed to make emphatic some 
fact already known. The teacher should, however, recognize 
the function of such questions, and not assume that they are 
genuine thought questions. 

The following are in reality only questions in name; they are declara- 
tions put in the form of an interrogative. 

"Is Shelley's poetry musical?" 

"Did Whittier have an intimate knowledge of country life?" 

"Was Washington a great general?" 

"Have we the right to injure the feelings of others?" 

"Was the religion of the Hebrews better than that of other ancient 
peoples? " 

"Is it right to cancel an honest debt?" 

"Was Dickens interested in social reforms?" 

(f) They require no further answer than assent or denial. — • 
*'Yes and no questions," as they are commonly called, are not 



328 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

of the thought producing type. Further they do not require a 
discriminating knowledge of facts. For this reason such ques- 
tions should seldom be asked, and then only for the evident and 
clear purpose of emphasis. 

The questions given under the immediately preceding topic are 
of this type. Further examples, taken from Miss Stevens' report, 
are the following: 

T. What else, generosity? 

P. Yes. 

T. Do the characters seem lifelike? 

P. Yes. 

T. Nothing to retard the story? 

P. No. 

T. Anything that seems at all forced? 

P. Yes. 

T. Would that be an especial charge to his chivalry? 

P. Yes. 

T. Very much space taken up with the description of nature? 

P. Yes. 

T. Have you a pretty fair idea of the country? 

P. Yes. 

T. Superstition used much in this story? 

P. Yes. 

T. Does Scott love action? 

P. Yes. 

T. What sort of story, then, is it interesting? 

P. Yes. 

The writer has attempted to make an estimate of the frequency 
of such questions in the average high school class. He selected at 
random twenty different classes and made a rough record of the 
percentage of yes and no questions asked. In these twenty classes 
a fourth of the questions required practically no response except af- 
firmation or denial. A large percentage of the answers were in the 
affirmation form, about nine out of ten. In some classes in English 
the proportion of these questions ran very high. Next in order of 
frequency stood history with science and foreign language somewhat 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 329 

lower, and mathematics at the bottom of the list. Further, there 
was an inverse relation between the number of thought questions 
asked during a recitation period and the number of yes and no ques- 
tions. 

(g) They stimulate only superficial and pseudo-judgments. — 
Genuine thought questions, requiring any extended reflection 
or discrimination cannot be numerous. For this the teacher is 
as a rule not primarily at fault. The time allowed for the class 
exercise does not afford an opportunity for much critical judg- 
ment. Further, many pupils are not capable of making such 
judgments. The teacher should, however, aim to ask an in- 
creasing number of genuine thought questions as he develops 
his subject with his class. He should now and then give oppor- 
tunity in the recitation period for the class to think out such 
questions. More frequently he should give these questions as 
a part of the assignment to be answered at the next recitation. 
To these genuine thought questions he will find many who 
are not capable of making an intelligent response. However, 
he is justified in asking such questions in order that the pupils 
of superior ability may have an opportunity to give their atten- 
tion, occasionally at least, to things that stimulate their intel- 
lectual interests and challenge their abilities. 

(h) They insist on answers that cannot he readily given. — 
Bagley, in particular, has pointed out the undesirability of 
what he terms the "pumping question." In a previous chapter 
we have likewise pointed out the folly of attempting to force 
the pupil to answer when he has not the inclination or ability 
to do so. Teachers not infrequently make the mistake of de- 
manding a reply from a member of the class who asserts that 
he does not know. They seem to take it as a challenge to their 
ability to force an answer from the pupil. Obviously, there 
is no justification in asking a pumping question when such 
questions are a test for knowledge. On the other hand the 
pumping question has a certain justification when it is directed 



330 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

toward making the pupil think. If instruction were individual 
the pumping question of this type would have a considerable 
place in teaching, but it should never be used as a means of 
stimulating the thought of a dull or indifferent pupil to the 
detriment of the class as a whole. No teacher should be so 
strong an adherent of the ^'Socratic Method" that he re- 
fuses to tell anything that by hook or crook can be dragged 
out of the pupil. The rights of the class as a whole are para- 
mount. 

The Essentials of a Good Question. — In the discussion of 
the preceding pages we have enumerated various faults found 
with some frequency in the questioning of most high school in- 
structors. From a review of these faults we can characterize the 
good question as possessing the following essentials: — 
. It should be in correct form and to the point, being sufficiently 
definite to indicate to the pupil the object aimed at by the 
teacher, but not so framed as practically to state the answer 
expected. All questions should be adapted to the knowledge 
and experience of the pupil. They should not be asked over his 
head. Questions should be asked with reasonable deliberation, 
the "tempo" being much more rapid for the fact or drill ques- 
tion than for the thought question. As a rule, the question 
should be asked but once and in the best possible form. It 
should seek for a more extended and explicit answer than that 
of yes or no. It should be a question that is aimed at bringing 
out an important rather than a trivial fact, and if asked for the 
purpose of stimulating thought, should deal with materials 
worthy of consideration. The question should be one that can 
be justified from the standpoint of the class as a whole, and 
hence should not be used to drag from the individual pupil 
facts about which he has no information or ideas that he can 
only with great difficulty formulate. 

In addition to these characteristics, the good question should 
be addressed to the class rather than to a single individual. 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 33 1 

Hence, unless there is a clear reason to the contrary, the ques- 
tion should be stated before an individual is called upon to 
respond. If the question requires thought, a considerable 
interval should elapse between the formulation of the question 
and the assigning of it to a particular pupil. Questions should 
be asked in no regular order, and should be distributed over 
the entire class. A few pupils should not be permitted to do all 
the reciting. On the other hand not all pupils should be ex- 
pected to answer all questions. The more difficult thought 
questions should be directed toward those only who can be 
reasonably required to answer them. Essential fact questions 
should be asked of all indifferently. 

The question should as a rule be so framed as to draw forth a 
complete thought. In discussing this point Miss Stevens says, — 
''When we ask a question calling for an association of ideas, 
we have no way of measuring the potency of the question except 
by the answer. The answer must fully reflect the result of the 
association called for or else we are in danger of fostering super- 
ficiality when we aim to develop accuracy and thoroughness.'* 
Teachers, however, may err at times in the opposite extreme 
by requiring too carefully framed answers, thus consuming an 
undue amount of time in the mere formal aspects of expression. 
The teacher of English who made it his principal aim in teaching 
Julius CcBsar to obtain complete statements from his pupils 
in their replies to his questions, surely had not in mind the 
main objectives in the study of Shakespeare. 

The thought question should be developed with the class. 
For this reason the answer should not be completely deter- 
mined by the teacher in advance. Quite frequently the pupil 
gives an intelligent answer to the question put by the teacher, 
but an answer that the teacher is not expecting. The teacher 
should accept such an answer at its face value, and not demand 
that the exact words sought be given. When the teacher in- 
sists on a predetermined answer, this gives the impression that 



332 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

the pupil is merely exercising his ingenuity in guessing what 
reply the teacher wants. The following taken from Miss Stevens, 
illustrates this point: — 

Teacher. How did it make the Greeks feel to conquer the Persians? 

Pupil. Very proud. 

T. Very proud. There is a better word than that. 

P. Vam. 

T. I think I should not say vain. 

P. Satisfied. 

T. Isn't there a better expression? 

P. Independent. 

T. That is good, independent, but there is still a better one. 

P. Self-confident. 

T, That is just what I wanted — self-confident. 

Further, it should be kept in mind by the teacher that the 
answers to his questions should be addressed to the class, and 
not to him alone. Finally, as a rule, the answers should not be 
repeated by the teacher. It is frequently the custom of the 
teacher to restate to the class the replies made by the pupil that 
is reciting. In general the justification for this procedure is 
based on the plea that such repetition makes more definite 
and emphatic the answer that has been given. Sometimes this 
is the case, but frequently the pupil has framed his answer in 
such a manner as to make repetition unnecessary. Generally, 
when the pupil's answer is not satisfactory, it is desirable to 
get the correct answer from some other member of the class, if 
this can be accomplished without too much waste of time. If 
the answer is satisfactory, but is not given distinctly, then the 
pupil should be required to repeat it for the benefit of the class. 
Only by insisting that the pupil shall answer in such a manner 
that the class as a whole can get the benefit of his replies, is it 
possible to make the class understand that the recitation is not 
primarily designed for the purpose of discovering what the in- 



THE QUESTION AS A METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 333 

dividual knows, but rather for the purpose of learning new 
facts, and gaining new insights through cooperative activities, 
in which teachers and pupils alike contribute their part to the 
work of the entire group. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE LESSON PLAN 

The Elements of a Carefully Prepared Lesson Plan. — 

It is obvious that success in any important form of human en- 
deavor depends on a definite plan of action. The more carefully 
considered and clearly formulated the plan, the greater its prac- 
tical value. Nowhere is such a plan more necessary than in 
teaching. No teacher, least of all the novice,, can safely dis- 
pense with a plan for conducting his class work. This plan 
should be worked out in detail and reduced to writing, to serve 
as a guide during the recitation. 

The plan should first of all consider the ground to be covered 
during the recitation period. This naturally falls into three 
parts, — namely, the review, the advance, and the assignment. 
The review takes up those matters that have been touched on 
in previous lessons. There are several considerations that deter- 
mine the nature and extent of the review. In the first place 
those parts of the work in which the pupils are weak should be 
reviewed. Again, points that need emphasis should be recalled 
from time to time, and finally those facts and principles that 
must be kept in mind in order to make the advance intelligible 
should be called to the attention of the class by means of review. 
The review must be systematically arranged and the exact 
amount of time to be devoted to it should be determined. 

The advance has to do with the lesson that has been pre- 
pared, in part or as a whole outside of the class, and is now taken 
up for full discussion for the first time. In planning for the 
advance, the teacher must decide just what points are to be 
emphasized during the recitation and must attempt to evaluate 

334 



THE LESSON PLAN 335 

them in terms of the general purpose of the lesson. In the plan, 
the advance work may often best be stated in the form of an 
outline of topics to be considered. As in case of the review, the 
teacher should determine the amount of time to be devoted to 
this part of the lesson. 

The assignment is a most important part of the recitation. 
Here, likewise, the points to be taken up should be carefully 
worked out by the teacher and adequate time should be given 
for this phase of the lesson. It should never be left to chance. 

These three parts of the lesson vary in proportion from day 
to day. At times the work may be entirely review, sometimes 
the advance may occupy the chief attention, and again as in 
the case of the "unprepared lesson," the entire hour may be 
taken up in considering the assignment. Further, it is to be 
remembered that advance and review do not always occupy 
separate parts of the lesson period. Not infrequently the ad- 
vance is made intelHgible through recalling during the course 
of the new lesson that which has previously been learned. In 
any case, however, the teacher should decide beforehand with 
as great accuracy as possible the proportion of the lesson that 
is to be devoted to these various phases of the work, the points 
to be considered under each head, and the amount of time 
that is to be given to each. 

The Aim is the Pivotal Point of Every Lesson Plan. — The 
subject-matter to be taken up, the emphasis that is to be given 
to the various parts of the lesson, and the time to be spent on 
each must be considered in reference to the aim. This is the 
pivot on which the entire lesson turns. No one can teach effec- 
tively unless he clearly determines what he wishes to teach, 
and why he wishes to teach it. He must have a conscious objec- 
tive that -gives point and method to his teaching. Otherwise 
he is quite at sea. 

As a rule, the teacher should have a hierarchy of objectives. 
He should have a general, or ultimate aim, under which should 



336 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

be arranged in a descending order proximate aims, terminating 
in the specific aims of the immediate lesson that is to be taught 
for the day. The ultimate and the more general proximate aims 
are not the objectives to be kept in the focus of attention. The 
aim before the teacher, which determines the method that is 
to be employed in each specific lesson, must be related to the 
''higher" proximate aims and to the ultimate aim, but they 
cannot be substituted for it. The aim which serves as the direct 
point of attack must be immediate and relatively simple. 

(a) The ultimate aims of instruction should serve to give the 
teacher a broad and generous view of his calling, and inspire him 
to practical achievement. — ^Although the detailed aims of the 
daily recitation are essential, they are not in themselves suf- 
ficient. The final aims of teaching should be somewhere in the 
background of the teacher's consciousness; they are inspira- 
tional and also practical, giving validity to the objectives that 
are nearer at hand. 

Perhaps the teacher considers that the final reason for teach- 
ing his subject is to make the pupil socially efficient. Again 
he may say that it is to develop character, or give happiness, 
or mental alertness, or a broad knowledge of life and its prob- 
lems. Whatever it may be, if the teacher sets out to accomplish 
this aim, he is given a conception of teaching that removes his 
instruction from the pettiness of a daily routine, and that makes 
it possible for him to evaluate his more immediate aims, giving 
them due weight and proportion. The teacher who has such 
final standards of achievement, is more likely to criticise his 
work from day to day, to revise and improve it, than the teacher 
who has nothing in view beyond the detailed objects of the 
subject he is teaching. 

The good teacher asks himself, "What am I really trying to do for 
the boys and girls in teaching them history, or English, or science, or 
French? To teach them these things means to teach to some purpose. 
What is that final purpose?" 



THE LESSON PLAN 337 

The instructor who teaches history with the aim of giving his 
pupils a view of human Hfe and its significance must teach facts 
(yes, even dates), but he must select these facts according to some 
principle and teach them in reference to some meaning. Such a 
conception will influence the aim of each and every lesson, make it 
more definite and more practical. 

The teacher of physics may conceive the ultimate aim of education 
to be a preparation for daily living. He will then ask himself what 
shall be the proximate objectives to achieve this result. "What 
facts and principles shall I teach," he asks, "that will be of the great- 
est use to the average boy and girl? How shall I make these seem 
real to my pupils? What methods of laboratory technique shall I 
insist on to realize my purpose?" 

The teacher of English who believes that the ultimate goal of in- 
struction is to give the learner a broad and sympathetic attitude 
toward life and its duties, will find these aims reflected in the choice 
of the material which he uses. Thus many of the petty details that 
others may insist on he will pass over, and those things which give 
insight, that create ideals, that inspire conduct, will loom large in 
his teaching. 

The teacher of French may believe that the value of an education 
is measured largely in terms of the training that it gives the mind, 
and he will accordingly pay less attention to the practice that makes 
pupils fluent in speech and ready in translation, and more attention 
to the linguistic phases of his subject, than will another teacher who 
sets up the standard of use as the end of instruction. Indeed it is this 
conception of education as mental discipline that has up to the present 
time determined too often the materials of instruction and the method 
of dealing with these materials in our foreign language courses in 
our high schools and colleges. It makes a vast difference in the 
teaching of this subject, or of any subject in the curriculum, whether 
the ultimate aim is mental training, practical use, insight, knowledge, 
or cultivated and enlightened taste. It often happens because dif- 
ferent teachers of the same subject have different conceptions of 
the purposes of instruction, that there is real confusion in the minds 
of the pupils, as they progress in their course and work under various 
teachers, as to what they are supposed to accomplish. 



338 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(b) The relative justification of practical, disciplinary, and 
cultural aims in teaching. — ^These three aims, general in their 
character, have determined very largely the more immediate 
aims of instruction. They can hardly be justified as ultimate 
aims, but they are among the most general of proximate aims, 
and are so important that a further word should be said con- 
cerning them at this point. 

Practical aims may be interpreted in a broad or a narrow 
way. As commonly understood, practical aims mean those 
things that can be definitely realized in the occupations and 
professions of life. In this sense the manual and domestic arts, 
the business courses, courses preliminary to teaching, and the 
like, are considered practical, while on the other hand the more 
academic subjects are thought of as not being practical. In 
the writer's opinion this conception of the practical is inadequate. 
Practical means useful, and use goes far beyond the mere earn- 
ing of a living. History is practical if the facts, notions, and 
ideals developed in the study function in the life of the pupil. 
If the study of history makes the pupil a better member of the 
community, if it ''humanizes" him, so to speak, then it has a 
practical worth. If on the other hand, it teaches him nothing 
that immediately or remotely influences his conduct, then he 
has been spending his time in a useless way. What is true of 
history is equally true of literature, science, language, and 
mathematics. No subject should be introduced into the curric- 
ulum, and no subject should be kept in the curriculum unless 
it can be justified in terms of this 'broader practicality. No 
teacher should attempt to teach anything unless he has some 
conception of how it may be used. 

Disciplinary and cultural aims do not primarily emphasize 

use, though that which disciplines the mind, that which broadens 

and enriches it, may be of the greatest use in the daily living of 

"the pupil. The conception of discipline that is ordinarily current 

seems to the writer to be misleading and dangerous. In spite 



THE LESSON PLAN 339 

of the very clear findings of educational psychology, the view is 
still common that one of the chief values of education is to be 
found in the cultivation of such mythical powers of the mind 
as reason, attention, imagination, discrimination and the like.^ 

The fallacy in this point of view lies in the fact that there is 
no all-round ability to reason, or to attend, or to imagine, or to 
discriminate. A pupil may very well learn to reason in mathe- 
matics and fail to reason in history; he may cultivate a vivid 
imagination in literature and acquire no skill in projecting a 
plan in carpentry, or foreseeing a result in physics. Further than 
this, when he graduates from high school and goes out into life, 
his reasoning ability, his imagination, his discrimination, ac- 
quired in his school tasks may be little in evidence in the office, 
the shop, or the factory. 

However, it would be wrong to assume that the discipline 
gained through study has no value in after life. Frequently, 
doubtless, it has great value, but just how extensive this value 
is in any given case, and how it will manifest itself, is a matter 
so difficult to predict that mental discipline should never be 
made either the sole or the principal aim in teaching. It should 
be regarded as a by-_product that comes of necessity when a 
subject is taught well and taught for a specific purpose. The 
aim of the teacher should be broadly practical. Then if he does 
his work well in terms of such an aim, he may be sure that in 
doing this he has trained the minds of his pupils. 

The same is true of culture as an end of instruction, if we 
mean by culture a kind of mental adornment, an attitude of 
mind which finds pleasure in knowledge and intellectual skill 
merely for the sake of that knowledge and that skill. Like those 
who seek happiness, those w^ho make culture the chief end of 
learning seldom find it. The highest culture comes to a person 
who has learned something useful and who has the skill to apply 

' For a typical statement in regard to disciplinary values see, "The prac- 
tical value of Latin," Classical Assoc, of the Atlantic States, April, 1915. 



340 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

what he has learned. Hence, the wise instructor teaches his- 
tory not from the standpoint of imparting entertaining informa- 
tion, but for the purpose of showing his pupils what human 
life means, and not only what it means, but how it should be 
lived. If he keeps this practical motive in view, he may be 
sure that his pupils will acquire a culture far more genuine than 
if they had been intent on gaining a kind of knowledge that is 
merely for the satisfaction of the knower. 

Rational enjojonent is often put forward as an important aim 
of education. This may be thought of as one aspect of culture, 
but it is attained in no other way than by learning those things 
that are worth while, that are practical in the sense that they 
work out the life of the individual in helpful ways. To enjoy 
good books is surely worth while, but not for the reason that 
such enjoyment is purely individual and selfish. Through the 
reading of good books the pupil's conduct is moulded for the 
better. It is significant that we do not set up enjoyment as 
such as an aim of education, but only rational enjoyment, mean- 
ing by this, enjoyment that influences the conduct of the in- 
dividual in helpful ways. It is not the enjoyment in itself that 
we seek; it is the practical consequences of this enjoyment. 
Thus in the end we can safely set up for ourselves only practical 
aims; aims that seek to realize in the conduct of the individual 
useful kinds of behavior. 

(c) The nature of immediate aims. — As we have already said, 
not only must we formulate aims of a more or less general char- 
acter to give point to our teaching, but we must set before our- 
selves very definite and immediate aims to direct the work of 
each lesson. No instructor who stops with general aims can 
hope to get the best results. His attitude in teaching a specific 
lesson must be very concrete. These concrete aims may result 
in impressing a body of facts which are necessary for the achieve- 
ment of a more general aim; in the comprehension and inter- 
pretation of such facts; in the acquisition of a definite amount 



THE LESSON PLAN 



341 



of skill; in gaining notions of methods of procedure and in ac- 
quiring interests, insights, and attitudes of appreciation. 

The following are examples of aims that seek to impress 
specific facts: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to bring to the attention of 
the class the five arts as developed in Egypt, namely, — architecture, 
sculpture, building, literature, and science." 

"The aim of this lesson (in physics) is to show that the resultant 
of two forces is a maximum when the forces are parallel, and act in 
the same direction; that the resultant decreases as the angle between 
the forces increases, until it is a minimum when the forces are in op- 
posite directions." 

"The aim of this lesson (in algebra) is to emphasize the rule for 
the subtraction of fractions, and further to show the fact that the 
removal of a parenthesis after a minus sign is in reality performing a 
subtraction." 

"The aim of this lesson (in physics) is to show some of the practical 
devices used to determine specific gravity." 

"The aim of this lesson (in algebra) is to emphasize the fact that 
in solving the equations for x, we never find x in terms of x, but always 
in terms of some other letters or figures; to emphasize also the fact 
that we must multiply each term in the numerator by the common 
denominator in clearing of fractions." 

"The aim of this lesson (in Latin) is to give a knowledge of the 
various forms and uses of verbs of the third conjugation, and also a 
knowledge of the essential differences between this conjugation and 
the first and second conjugations." 

"The aim of this lesson (in chemistry) is to present the properties - 
and uses of chlorine and its methods of preparation." 

The following are examples of aims that seek to secure the com- 
prehension and interpretation of facts: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to bring out the main reasons 
for the decline and fall of the Roman civilization, and to compare 
conditions in Rome with similar conditions in America today," 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to show why Rome's policy 
of expansion was more profitable than Greece's policy." 



342 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to bring out the contrast 
between Rome and Carthage and to show how the superiority of 
Rome meant in the end the downfall of Carthage." 

"The aim of this lesson (in physics) is to impress upon the class 
the distinction between the three classes of levers, and to show the 
application of the principles involved to machines of common use." 

"The aim of this lesson (in EngHsh literature) is to consider the 
noble qualities in the character of Lancelot, and what influence they 
had in determining his conduct." 

"The aim of this lesson (in general science) is to show the mean- 
ing of the term 'natural selection' and its significance in the evolu- 
tion of various existing species; likewise, to contrast natural selection 
with artificial selection, bringing out the resemblances between these 
two principles and their essential differences, through discussion and 
illustration." 

"The aim of this lesson (in German) is to give the class an idea 
of the ways in which time of day is expressed, and to show as far as 
possible the reason for the expressions used, contrasting them with 
the English idioms of a like character. Facts are not merely to be 
impressed, but as far as possible they are to be 'rationalized.' " 

The following are examples of aims the main purpose of which is 
to secure from the pupils a certain amount of skill: — 

"The first aim in this lesson (in Latin) is to stimulate the class to 
read the assignment more rapidly and with fewer errors than they 
read yesterday's assignment of similar length and difficulty. Yester- 
day the assignment was read in sixteen minutes, and each pupil made 
an average of three errors. Today I shall attempt to cut down the 
time by at least two minutes, and urge the pupils to read with greater 
care, as well." 

"The main aim of this exercise (in chemistry) is to give the pupils 
some familiarity with the method of purifying water of volatile sub- 
stances by the application of heat, and to afford individuals practice 
in this method until they can use it practically." 

"The aim of this lesson (in French) is to encourage the pupils to 
talk more freely in the language than they have, up to the present, 
been doing. I wish to give them some confidence and a moderate 
degree of fluency if possible." 



THE LESSON PLAN 343 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to secure from the class a 
rapid response in connecting the twenty important dates that have 
been learned up to the present time with the most essential facts to 
which these dates are related. These dates will be repeated in ran- 
dom order and immediate replies will be expected." 

The following aims emphasize methods of procedure, rather than 
facts or principles; — 

"The aim of this lesson (in algebra) is to help the class in solving 
problems." 

"The aim is to show the class how to study a lesson in geometry." 

"The aim of this lesson is to show the pupils how to read German 
intelligently." 

"The aim of this lesson (in algebra) is to show the class the special 
method of obtaining the square and cube, and the square root and 
cube root of monomials." 

"The aim of this lesson (in physics) is to make clear the method of 
analysis of a problem, with special emphasis on reading the problem 
so as to find out its meaning." 

"The aim of this lesson is to show the pupils how to read ancient 
history in order to get out of the text the most important ideas and 
to arrange these in their proper order." 

The following aims seek to arouse interest, to secure appreciation, 
and to develop desirable attitudes: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in English) is to make the class compre- 
hend Thoreau's keen observation of Nature, to understand his sym- 
pathy with his neighbors in the wilderness, and to lead the pupils to 
feel the value of this observation and this sympathy." 

"The aim of this lesson (in English) is to make the pupils realize 
the state of mind of Lady Macbeth after the murder of the king, and 
to impress upon them the frightful consequences of evil." 

"The aim of this lesson (in English) is to get the pupils to appre- 
ciate the delicate humor in A Rill fram the Town Pump by Haw- 
thorne." 

"The aim of this lesson (in English) is to make the class realize 
in reading Benjamin Frankhn's experience with the whistle the value 
of being conscious of one's mistakes." 

"The aim of this lesson (in English composition) is to stimulate 



344 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

alertness on the part of the class, in criticising original stories read by 
various members of the class." 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to lead the pupils to under- 
stand that the motives of different men and different races are funda- 
mentally the same, and thus to impress an attitude of tolerance toward 
others." 

"The aim of this lesson (in physics) is to make the class feel that 
it is necessary to employ exact measurements and definite technical 
methods, if results that are worth while are to be obtained." 

"The aim of this lesson (in Latin) is to give the pupils some ap- 
preciation of the exact use of words, and its value in expressing 
thought." 

"The aim of this lesson (in geometry) is to impress the pupils with 
the proper attitude in attempting to solve originals." 

"The aim of this lesson (in geometry) is to make the class realize 
the value of business-like methods in demonstrating propositions." 

(d) Some common faults found in the statement of immediate 
aims by teachers. — ^As a rule teachers, particularly the novice, 
find difficulty in adequately conceiving and stating the im- 
mediate aims of their class instruction. The most commonly 
noted faults, according to the writer's experience, are the fol- 
lowing: ^ 

(i) The teacher states his aims in too general and indefinite 
terms. These two faults are as a rule closely related. As we 
have already seen, it is necessary to have general aims in order 
to give scope, organization, and significance to the detailed work. 
However, each lesson must have a few very definite and rela- 
tively simple objectives. 

The following are examples of general, vague, and indefinite 
aims: — 

"To further consider multiplication." 

"To give an introduction to the subject of triangles." 

1 For examples of aims and methods which in the main are free from the 
errors pointed out in the following discussion, see Appendix C. 



THE LESSON PLAN 345 

"To give the pupils an insight into the reign of Louis XIV." 

"To get as much fun as possible out of the story of the Seven 
Vagabonds. ^^ 

"To make the Legefids of the Province House as intelligible as 
possible." 

"To bring out interesting points in Hannibal's career." 

"To develop an appreciation of the Lady of the Lake." 

"To introduce the class to the study of letter-writing." 

"To discuss some of the modern things in ancient civilization." 

"To interest the pupils in the works of some of the best modem 
authors." 

"To give the class (in geometry) a sure foundation for future 
work." 

"To clear up any difficulties (in German) of the pupils." 

"To review everything in the last two lessons." 

In contrast to these general and vague aims, the greater practical 
value in teaching the daily lesson of such aims as the following, is ap- 
parent : 

"The aim of this lesson is to impress upon the class the present, 
imperfect, and future tenses, passive voice, of rego, and capio: and to 
bring out the points of difference and resemblance between the active 
and passive forms of these two verbs." 

"The aim of this lesson is to show the pupils that although an ad- 
jective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, the adjec- 
tive does not necessarily have the same ending as the noun. For 
example, if an adjective is joined with a masculine noun of the first 
declension, the endings of the noun and adjective will not be the 
same." 

"The aim of this lesson is to emphasize the principle that in the 
addition of fractions, if a factor of one denominator is the negative 
of the same factor of another denominator, we may change the signs 
of one of these factors if we change the sign before the fraction; also, 
that in the addition of fractions and integral expressions, before pro- 
ceeding we must place the integral expression as it stands over a 
denominator and place before this expression a plus sign." 

"The aim of this lesson is to make clear to the class the necessity 
of simplifying equations involving a parenthesis, before solving." 



346 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

"The aim of this lesson is to consider calcium and calcium oxide 
in relation to form, occurrences, preparation, properties, and uses." 

(2) The teacher formulates aims that are beyond the understand- 
ing of the pupils or are so large and comprehensive that they cannot 
he grasped easily. Examples of such aims are the following: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in English) is to show the versatility of 
the genius of Shakespeare." 

"The aim of this lesson (in Greek history) is to give the pupils a 
conception of the growth of moral ideals." 

"The aim of this lesson (in science) is to impress upon the pupils 
the fact that all the phenomena of the universe are interrelated, and 
that determinism is the unvarying rule of Nature." 

The above aims undoubtedly give expression to certain desirable 
objectives in teaching, but as stated they cannot be readily grasped 
by the average pupil. 

Examples of aims more adapted to the pupil's understanding are: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in English) is to impress upon the class the 
skill with which Mark Antony plays upon the emotions of his au- 
dience in the funeral oration." 

"The aim of this lesson (in Greek history) is to emphasize the mili- 
tary methods and ideals of Sparta, and to contrast them with those 
of Athens." 

"The aim of this lesson (in general science) is to give the pupils 
some idea of the meaning of the term 'conservation of energy/" 

(3) The teacher sets up aims that are largely formal, and so 
obvious that they are of no value in the actual teaching of the lesson. 
— ^The form which this fault takes is often that of stating the 
assigned work as the object of the lesson. The following are 
illustrations: — 

"The aim of this lesson is to introduce the class to the new subject, 
the geometry of circles, as treated in the assignment for the day." 

"The aim of this lesson (in geometry) is to consider the proof of 
propositions XXV. and XXVI." 



THE LESSON PLAN 347 

"The aim of this lesson is to prove that any two rectangles are to 
each other as the product of their bases by their altitudes." 

"The aim of this lesson is to prepare potassium nitrate." 

"The aim of this lesson is to prove the following proposition: — ^If 
the circumference of a circle is divided into any number of equal 
arcs, the chords joining the successive points of division form a regular 
inscribed polygon; and the tangents drawn at the points of the divi- 
sion form a regular circumscribed polygon." 

"The aim of this lesson is to teach the complete inflections of 
Tolo, nolo, and malo: and the use of the dative with such verbs as 
believe, favor, and helpJ^ 

On the other hand the following aims attempt to do more than 
merely state the content of the assigned text: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in geometry) is to furnish the pupils with a 
definite idea of the meaning of the terms radius, diameter, circum- 
ference, arc, chord, and tangent." 

"The aim of this lesson (in physics) is to show the fact that sound 
is transmitted through the air in the form of waves." 

"The aim of this lesson (in Latin) is to make clear to the class the 
various uses of the ablative absolute as illustrated in the translation 
exercises, — Latin to English, and English to Latin." 

(4) The teacher sometimes sets up the same aim day after day. — 
This generally results from the fact that the aim is so general 
that it constitutes an objective which may determine the teach- 
ing of a large part of the course. One teacher, for example, 
week after week states that one of his aims in teaching English, 
is the arousing of interest in the literature read; another, as a 
rule, states that one of his aims is emphasizing the value of a 
complete answer to every question put; a third, repeats con- 
stantly in his lesson plans the object of impressing upon his 
pupils the necessity of accurate and logical statements in geomet- 
rical demonstrations. Of course, no one can deny the value of 
interest as an objective, the desirability of accurate replies to 
questions, and of logical statements in proving propositions. 
Clearly the fault here consists in not having worked out in more 



348 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

detail the more immediate aims by which these larger ones may 
be realized. 

(5) The teacher attempts to realize too many aims in the course 
of a single lesson. — This is in part due to the fact that he does 
not sufl&ciently recognize the desirability of emphasizing a few 
of the more important details of the lesson rather than of at- 
tempting to cover a large amount of ground in a hasty and 
hazy manner. It is better to teach a few things well than to 
teach many in an obscure fashion. The following are examples 
of the fault of having too many aims: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in algebra) is to discuss the four funda- 
mental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division; the removal of signs of grouping, and the solution of prob- 
lems involving more than one unknown quantity." 

"The aim of this lesson (in ancient history) is to emphasize the 
important features of the home-life of the Phoenicians, the charac- 
teristics of these people in general, the chief Phoenician cities, with 
an accurate notion of their location and industrial life, and finally 
the important gifts that the Phoenicians left to posterity." 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to discuss the causes of 
Edward's peaceful reign; the relations between Normandy and Eng- 
land during his reign; the activities of the rival claimants to his throne 
after his death; Harold's struggle to maintain the kingdom; William's 
methods that led to his complete conquest of England; and finally to 
summarize the two great conquests of the tenth century, and show 
the importance of each." 

On the other hand, such aims as the following seek to realize one 
main objective: — 

"The aim of this lesson (in algebra) is to make clear the principles 
underlying the factoring of the following expressions, — 

a2 -\- 2ab + b2; a^— 2ab— b^, a^— b^; a^ -|-2ax -{- 2ay + x2 -|- 2xy -j- y^; 
a2— 2ax— 2ay -}- x^ -f 2xy -|- y^; a^— x^— 2xy-'y2." 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to make clear the effect of 
the Russian campaign on the ultimate overthrow of Napoleon." 



THE LESSON PLAN 349 

(6) The teacher at times Jails to unify the various aims of the 
lesson in terms of some larger purpose, that determines and in- 
cludes the more specific objectives. — The teacher should aim as far 
as possible to have a distinct goal for each lesson taught, rather 
than to bring out a large number of relatively unrelated facts 
and principles. In the examples cited under the preceding topic 
most of the aims quoted are to be criticised for lack of unity as 
well as for an excessive amount of detail. One further example 
will perhaps tend to emphasize this fault of lack of coherence 
in specific aims: 

"The aim of this lesson (in German) is to give the boys practice 
in forming simple sentences in answer to questions; to make sure 
they all profited by the reading yesterday; to bring to their attention 
the principles of indirect discourse; also certain idioms explained 
under paragraph 154; further to stimulate interest in the subject; to 
impart knowledge about Germany; and to improve pronunciation, 
reading ability, and vocabulary." 

(7) The teacher does not distinguish between an aim and a 
method. — Theoretically such a distinction is easy enough to 
make; practically it is often difficult. The teacher, however, 
will be helped in remembering that aims concern the what and 
the why of instruction, and methods the how. Probably at times 
it makes but little difference whether this distinction is ab- 
solutely held to or not. It is, however, important that the ^^^ 
teacher should not set up a method as an ultimate end of in- 
struction. This is likely to result at times in a barren formalism. 

In elementary instruction, some teachers have conceived the 
Five Formal Steps of the Herbartians as aims, rather than 
means by which important results may be obtained. Such 
teachers have felt that it makes little difference what is taught 
or why it is taught, if each lesson is developed in the form of 
"Preparation," "Presentation," "Comparison and Abstrac- 
tion," "Generalization," and "Application." Manifestly, not 



350 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

all lessons lend themselves to this form of procedure. Even in 
those cases in which they do, it is not possible to decide what 
should be taught by considering a method of teaching. 

Again, teachers are often impressed with the necessity of 
conducting instruction in the form of the question-and-answer 
method, and consequently keeping this object in view, they at 
times go to unjustifiable and ridiculous extremes. 

The high school teacher is not prone to these errors, since 
often he knows but little about the methodology of instruction. 
His chief danger consists in thinking of tests for knowledge and 
processes of drill (methods of obtaining definite results) as in 
themselves objectives of instruction. This is generally a fatal 
error. At times, too, he regards methods of presenting new 
facts, through development, lecture, demonstration, discussion, 
and the like, as ends rather than means. Of course, the teacher 
should be conscious of his methods, and seek to criticise and 
perfect them. However, during the conduct of the recitation, 
emphasis should be on what is being accomplished rather than 
on the means of accomplishment. To use an analogy, the skilled 
marksman must develop his technique to an extraordinary de- 
gree, but the target at which he is aiming must be in the focus 
of his consciousness, if he is to hit the mark. 

The following are examples of aims that emphasize primarily 
the how of instruction, rather than the what or the why, and 
hence are in reality methods of attaining certain desired 
results: 

"The aim of this lesson (in English) is to apply the principles of 
grammar recently studied, in reading the selections for the day's 
work." 

"The aim of this lesson (in chemistry) is to correlate the laboratory 
work with the text-book work." 

"The aim of this lesson (in German) is to find out how much the 
class knows in order to plan out future work." (Comment, — the 
latter part of this statement is the object which the teacher has in 



THE LESSON PLAN 351 

view; the testing of the knowledge of the pupil is merely a means for 
obtaining this object.) 

"The aim of this lesson (in physics) is to test the knowledge of the 
class, and to explain the problems." (Comment, — to test, and to 
explain are primarily methods.) 

"The aim of this lesson (in Latin) is to put into use the principles 
of the previous lesson; to give a thorough review on the first three 
lessons, and to drill on new forms." (Comment, — what object has 
the teacher that leads him to use these methods of instruction?) 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to drill the class on the facts 
concerning courts, the feudal system, taxation, the Great Charter, 
the power of the king, and certain changes in the English language." 

"The aim of this lesson (in history) is to develop with the class the 
reasons for Athenian supremacy." (Comment, — why "develop" 
rather than test the class as to what it knows about Athenian su- 
premacy, or tell the class the essential facts? — Obviously the teacher 
must have some aim that is better reahzed in his opinion by develop- 
ing the facts than by using other methods of instruction.) 

The Methods by which the Aims of the Lesson are to be 
Realized is the Second Essential of a Well-constructed 
Plan. — ^As we have already pointed out in our previous discus- 
sion, the three general methods of instruction are testing the 
knowledge and skill of the pupil; drilling the pupil until a desired 
perfection in both knowledge and skill is obtained; and acquaint- 
ing the pupil with new facts, principles, and methods of pro- 
cedure. Since these phases of instruction have been extensively 
discussed, they need no further elaboration. There are, how- 
ever, several important principles which concern method that 
may properly be taken up at this point. Some of these con- 
siderations have been indirectly touched upon in discussing the 
nature of a good aim. 

(a) Like the aim, the method is often poorly thought out and 
inadequately formulated. — Sometimes it is stated in such a formal 
and obvious way as to be of little or no value to the teacher, as 
for example, — "I shall ask a few questions in order to bring out 



352 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

the principal points," or "I shall go over the proofs as set forth 
in the day's lesson." Again, the method like the aim may be 
too general; that is, not outlined in sufficient detail, as for ex- 
ample, — "For the most part, my method is by question and 
answer," or "I intend to bring out the important points in the 
myths of to-day's lesson by oral work on grammar and by oral 
composition," or "I shall attempt to train the ear by the read- 
ing of Davis' Gallegher.'^ Surely the teachers who have out- 
lined these methods have expressed in no clear way the practical 
steps in their procedure. 

The method may also have little coherence and organization, 
the various steps having slight relation and developing in no 
certain direction; as for example, — "My method will consist 
in a test for knowledge; in blackboard work; in questions asked 
of various pupils to lead them to think, and in drill on some of 
the points that seem to be obscure." Often, too, the method 
may consist of an amplification of the aim, and not of a clear 
outline of the procedure by which the aim is to be attained. 

For example, the aim in teaching a lesson in mechanics may be to 
consider the principles involved in the operation of the lever, but the 
statement that this object will be accomplished by a presentation of 
the nature of levers is not properly a description of method. It is 
simply a more detailed statement of the aim and gives no adequate 
idea of the how of instruction. On the other hand, the statement 
that the principles of the lever wiU be brought out by a class demon- 
stration of the mechanics of a balance, a crowbar, a nut-cracker, etc. 
gives some definite idea as to how the instruction is to proceed. 

In a Hke manner, the aim in teaching a lesson in English literature 
may be to help the class form a vivid picture of the scenes in Snow^ 
Bound. However, the further statement that this will be accom- 
plished by calling the attention of the class in detail to certain stanzas 
of the poem is only a more definite statement of the aim. The method 
concerns itself with how these details are to be presented. Perhaps 
pictures may be used; perhaps pupils wiU be asked to recall in imagina- 



THE LESSON PLAN 353 

tion winter scenes that they have experienced; perhaps they will be 
asked to make a rough drawing of the scene around the fireplace, or 
will be required to state in their own words the picture as they per- 
ceive it; or, finally, to make a list of the descriptive adjectives em- 
ployed, and to explain their meaning. 

(b) On the whole, the most important characteristic of a good 
method is that it shall carry out in sufficient detail the aims of the 
recitation. — Teachers differ greatly in their ability to formulate 
dearly their methods in terms of the objects of the lesson. 
Some give a most indefinite and general statement, often hav- 
ing little bearing on their avowed aims; while others have a cer- 
tain genius in formulating the means by which their purposes 
are to be achieved. The following examples are illustrations 
of methods that are carefully related to the aims of the lesson 
and worked out in reasonable detail: — 

Aim. — The subject of this lesson is taxation as a cause of the 
French Revolution. My aim is to make the pupils understand in 
the first place, what taxes are; in the second place, what they are used 
for; in the third place, how they are raised; and finally, why taxation 
should sometimes be a cause for war. 

Method. — ^When the class assembles, I shall pass out sheets of 
paper for the purpose of having a short test. This test will require 
about fifteen minutes, and will be based upon the reading assigned to 
be done outside of the class. The following questions will be asked : — 
(i) Give proofs that the burdens of taxation were unevenly distrib- 
uted. (2) Name the different kinds of taxes in France at the time 
of the French Revolution. (3) What were the direct and indirect 
taxes? — Explain and give examples of each. After the test is over, 
I shall begin the explanation of taxation by saying that the city of 

has a yearly expense of about SS, 000,000.00. I shall then 

ask how this money is expended, so directing the questions that I 
shall receive such answers as the following: ''To keep the city streets 
clean;" "to pay the salaries of city officials;" "to maintain the public 
schools;" "to provide the enforcement of sanitary rules and regula- 



354 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

tions;" "to maintain a fire department, and a police force." I shall 
then ask the question, — "How does the city secure money to pay for 
these things?" and I shall naturally expect the answer: "Through 
taxes." I shall then ask about methods of assessing taxes and secur- 
ing their payment, and I shall compare such methods with those em- 
ployed in France before the Revolution. I shall finally bring out 
through various questions the fact that the people of the city under 
discussion do not as a rule feel that taxation is a heavy burden, and 
that the poor are practically exempt from direct taxes. On the basis 
of these questions, I shall attempt to contrast the condition of the 
French people with that of those in the local community, and to show 
how excessive and burdensome taxation causes discontent and may 
ultimately lead to social revolution. In emphasizing this last point, 
I shall call the attention of the class to the burdens of ta,xation that 
are being placed on the shoulders of the people of Europe in the Great 
War, and suggest possible results after the conclusion of peace. 

Aim. — The subject of this lesson in algebra is factoring, and the 
specific aim that I have in mind is to show in detail the method of 
factoring the sum of two cubes. 

Method. — I shall recall with the help of the class all the previous 
work relating definitely to this topic (it would have been well if the 
teacher had here stated what definite points in this previous work he 
intended to emphasize). I shall then with the suggestion of the class 
multiply at the blackboard factors by our rules of special products, 
and show that these factors wUl be the factors of the sum of the 
cubes. I shall do several examples this way and next I shall take the 
sum of two cubes and discover the factors. Then we shall state in 
our own words the principle involved. I shall devote the remainder 
of the hour to written work, with the pupils at their seats, after the 
plan of supervised study. 

In contrast to these definite statements of method in terms of aims 
the following example shows the uselessness of methods that have no 
clear connection with the avowed objects of the recitation: — 

Aim. — My aim in this lesson (in algebra) is to bring out the sig- 
nificance of the absence of the sign between two parentheses. 

Method. — ^I shall first give the class a brief written test upon the 
examples for today's work. I shall then do any examples of any 



THE LESSON PLAN 355 

kind that are asked for; and I shall use up the rest of the time by- 
asking such questions as these: — "What must we remember to do 
first in all examples? " " What must we remember in addition? " 

(c) The method should further give a statement of the most im- 
portant questions to be asked. — It should distinguish between 
questions that are mainly for the purpose of testing the knowl- 
edge of the pupil, or for emphasis and drill, and questions that 
aim to develop thought. It should also give in some detail a 
statement of illustrations to be used, and demonstrations to 
be conducted, as well as the method of procedure in these demon- 
strations. It should further describe exactly how tests are to 
be given and drill exercises to be conducted. 

The Statement of the Result is the Third Essential of the 
Lesson Plan. — ^As soon as possible after the lesson the teacher 
should record the results obtained. In some instances, it will 
be possible to state definitely just what has been accomplished; 
more often, only general impressions can be given. There are 
two main reasons why the results should be recorded. In the 
first place, it is highly important that the teacher should form 
as clear an idea as possible of just what he has accomplished 
during the class period. He should set down all definite results, 
record all impressions, and subject himself to a frank criticism. 
In the second place, the recording of the results constitutes an 
important summary of achievement to which he may refer 
from time to time as the work progresses. It is valuable for 
him to know just what happened last week, last month, or last 
year, if he is properly to understand and measure his progress. 

The recording of results varies from setting down fragmentary 
details and impressions, to rather definite statements. The 
following examples illustrate a rather wide range in records of 
this character: — 

"The results were very satisfactory today." (Comment, — not 
particularly valuable or suggestive.) 



356 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

"The great difficulty in this class seems to be to keep the whole 
class working all the time. The lesson today was a hard one on me, 
because I made an effort to keep everyone attentive." (Comment, — 
more detailed and helpful.) 

"The attention is very good, but the work is poor. The same 
pupils that recite poorly are handing in correct examples done by a 
different method than the one that I demonstrated. The conclu- 
sion is obvious." 

"The results in this class were appalling. Some failed to distin- 
guish between east and west. I must admit that the map was far 
from being clear; however, the work at the map was so slow that I 
covered the work of neither the advance nor the review. The pupils 
seem to lean on me when they say proper names. The spelling and 
pronunciation of these are bad. I must evidently revise my method 
somewhat with special reference to these weak points." 

"I found in the preparation of today's lesson that some pupils spent 
two hours on the work ; others only twenty or forty minutes. I find that 
those that do the best work are those who report spending on the aver- 
age of from an hour to an hour and a half in preparing the day's lesson." 

"I repeated a mistake made by one of the pupils. I know that 
I should not have done this. In declining a neuter noim, a pupil made 
a mistake in giving the accusative; when I asked the gender, the mis- 
take was immediately corrected. Would it not have been better to 
have asked the gender in the first place? " 

"In the work of the laboratory, pupils have found it hard to keep 
in mind the object of the experiment while performing it, so I have 
tried the following scheme for the past two weeks: I have written 
upon the blackboard the object, and other information necessary to 
the formulation of a proper report, and I have taken pains to em- 
phasize what I have written. The results so far have been good; 
more of the pupils seem to realize that the experiment actually has 
an object; the reports are written up in a more satisfactory fashion, 
and in subsequent discussions, the pupils seem to have a rather clear 
idea of what they have been doing." 

The Prerequisites of a Good Lesson Plan. — In our previous 
discussions, we have emphasized in considerable detail, the 



THE LESSON PLAN 357 

objects, nature, and methods of construction of an adequate 
lesson plan. In concluding this chapter, it may be well to con- 
sider the preparation and equipment of the teacher as related 
to his ability to construct such a plan. 

(a) An adequate lesson plan is based on a comprehensive and 
scholarly view of the subject taught. — We have already considered 
the fact that a thorough knowledge of the subject is essential 
to good teaching. Nowhere is this knowledge more important 
than in the making out of a daily lesson plan, since this plan 
must form an integral part in the development of a course as a 
whole. Hence, the teacher, as we have already said, must know 
the text-book on which the work is to be based before he begins 
the course. He should likewise acquaint himself with other 
standard texts in the field and carefully note their contents and 
plan of presentation. He should be familiar with other books 
bearing on his subject, and as far as possible acquaint himself 
with the latest developments of his subject, which perhaps are 
not yet recorded in book form. In terms of such knowledge, he 
can then decide what facts are most essential for a proper under- 
standing of the subject, and on this basis determine in part 
what he shall present to his class and what emphasis he shall 
give to the various materials presented. 

(b) It is based on a knowledge of the interests, needs, and capaci- 
ties of the pupil. — This again is a matter that has been previously 
discussed, but its importance is so great that there is little danger 
of making it too emphatic. Not all facts that are desirable to 
know can be impressed on the pupil. Those that do not in- 
terest him, and those in which he can be made to have interest 
only with great difficulty, if at all, must be rejected. Many 
things, too, that the learner might find attractive but which 
will probably be of little use to him, must be rejected, for interest 
must be considered as a means to an end rather than a final 
goal of instruction. 

(c) // is based on a knowledge of method. — Many high school 



358 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

teachers today have a satisfactory knowledge of their subject, 
a considerable number have a conception of the nature and 
limitations of the minds of their pupils, both as individuals and 
as members of a group, but relatively few have given adequate 
consideration to the best form of presenting their subject. Ap- 
parently many teachers of language have no knowledge of the 
"direct method," or, if they have such knowledge, they have 
acquired no skill in its use. Much has been written in recent 
years about teaching science and the manual arts by "projects." 
How many high school teachers can define this term, or give 
concrete illustrations of its use? Just at present there is much 
agitation in regard to individual methods of instruction. How 
far has this discussion influenced the average high school teacher 
in the conduct of his classes? 

How should geometry be taught? As an independent sub- 
ject, or in connection with algebra? What amount of time 
should be given to construction; to training in perception of 
spatial relationships, proportions, and magnitude; to applica- 
tion through concrete problems, and so on? Has the teacher of 
mathematics considered these matters? 

What amount of time should be given to instruction in oral 
English and how should it be taught? Should the approach 
to English literature be through the English classics, or through 
modern poetry and prose? How should expression be related 
to appreciation? These are a few of the questions that every 
English teacher should comprehend and consider. 

What place has the "library method" in teaching history? 
How can this subject be made more vital to the pupil? How 
should local history be taught? What relation has history to 
civics and economics? Such problems as these should at least 
be familiar to the teacher of this subject. 

In physics, chemistry, and biology, what relation should there 
be between the recitation and the work in the laboratory? 
What is the best and most economical technique in the labora- 



THE LESSON PLAN 359 

tory exercises? What is the function of the note-book? How 
and when should it be written up? What form should it have? 

There is no subject in the high school curriculum that does 
not present its definite problems in methods of presentation. 
The teacher should acquaint himself with these problems and 
the manner of their solution. He need not try every suggestion 
that is brought forth, but he should know something about the 
most important of these suggestions, and if opportunity offer he 
should try out those that seem to be the most promising. Per- 
haps after learning about the direct method, he will still keep to 
the grammatical method of teaching German or French or Latin, 
but he should in his own mind justify his choice. He may read 
the many discussions concerning the teaching of high school 
mathematics, and end as he began by treating geometry purely 
as an exercise in logic, but he should have a clear reason for do- 
ing this. Projects in general science may appear to him as too 
difficult and time-consuming to warrant their use, but at least he 
should know why the project method is sometimes used, and 
what results are claimed for it. Not all new things are the best 
things, but a knowledge of these new things cannot safely be 
dispensed with. 

For this reason, as has previously been urged, the teacher 
must know the educational literature in his special subject. 
He must be acquainted through books and journals with what 
his colleagues are thinking and doing. Even though he does 
not have such an acquaintance, he may teach well, but he will 
teach blindly. If he does plan his work effectively under such 
circumstances, it will be because of lucky chance, rather than 
because of insight and systematic comprehension; and he should 
remember that, as a rule, chance is a blind alley. 



CHAPTER XVII 

SUPERVISED STUDY 

The Teacher's Function is Broader than that of a Hearer 
of Lessons. — ^At various points in our previous discussions we 
have pointed out the fact that the teacher conceives his func- 
tion too largely as that of a hearer of lessons, and too little as 
that of a director of the intellectual activities of his pupils. 

In a discussion in The Ladies' Home Journal ^ a correspondent re- 
ports a conversation between a widow and a school superintendent 
in which the widow says, "I have four little girls attending your 
schools. I am up at five o'clock in the morning to get them off to 
school and to get myself off to work. It is six o'clock in the evening 
when I reach home again, pretty well worn out, and after we have 
had dinner and have tidied up the house a bit, it is eight o'clock. 
Then, tired as I am, I sit down and teach the little girls the lessons 
your teachers will hear them say over on the following day. Now, if 
it is all the same to you, it would be a great help and favor to me if 
you will have your teachers teach the lessons during the day, and 
then all I would have to do at night would be to hear them say them 
over." 

This brings out a most essential and fundamental point. It 
is the teacher who should aid and lead his pupils in their scholarly 
pursuits; he should not appear, more than is absolutely neces- 
sary, as an umpire in the game of learning, or as a taskmaster, 
who exacts his due. More and more it is being recognized that 
the teacher must be a teacher in the only meaning in which 
the word can be justly used, — namely, in the sense of one who 

1 January, 1913. 
360 



SUPERVISED STUDY 36 1 

helps those under his instruction to secure knowledge, to acquire 
skill, to obtain insight, and to gain appreciation. During the 
conduct of the recitation such help shows itself in properly con- 
ducted and economical drill, in telling, explaining, and illustrat- 
ing important facts, in demonstrating methods of procedure, 
and developing with the class ideas, principles, points of view, 
and attitudes of thought and feeling. 

Until recently the help that the teacher gave his pupils has 
been largely confined to these above-mentioned objects. How- 
ever, it is being seen more and more clearly that the most im- 
portant aid that the teacher can give to his pupils is to show 
them how to go about their work in the most efl&cient manner. 
Hence, we are hearing much today about supervised study, 
about the reasons for it, the methods to be used and the results 
to be achieved. As a consequence, in some high schools, though 
as yet in but a few, organized attempts are found to make super- 
vised study one of the important functions of teaching. 

Reasons for Supervised Study. — ^There are various reasons 
why supervised study in the high school is desirable. Among 
these the following are important: — 

(a) The physical cojtditions of the home often make concentra- 
tion on the assigned lessons extremely difficult, and at times prac- 
tically ifnpossible. — In a previous chapter we have discussed the 
fact that in many instances the pupils live in cramped and 
squalid surroundings. The home has but a few rooms, and these 
are used for general purposes. They are poorly lighted, badly 
heated and ventilated, and inadequately furnished. Worse 
than this there may be several or many persons in the room in 
which the pupil is trying to do his work. Thus the pupil has 
no place in which to study. No business man could do efificient 
work under similar conditions. It is a wonder that pupils in 
such homes accomplish anything at all. But not only in the 
homes of the poor do we find unsatisfactory physical conditions. 
It is probably an exception that the high school pupil has a room 



362 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

entirely to himself in which he may do his studying. Often he 
sits around the library table with his brothers and sisters, doing 
his school work. His parents are also frequently present, and 
there are many distractions and interruptions. Under such 
circumstances he finds it extremely difficult to get down to work, 
and to keep at his tasks with concentrated and sustained effort. 
Thus, he wastes much time and acquires undesirable habits of 
study. 

(b) Home study tends toward irregular habits of work. — ^The 
pupil who does his work at home as a rule studies when it fits 
into his other plans and those of his parents. Often he has no 
regular study hours. At times he postpones his work until the 
last minute, and gets what he can in a feverish hour of effort, 
sometimes before breakfast or even during the meal itself. 
On some evenings he may study; on others he goes out with 
his friends, or ''takes in a show." When he remains at home 
his work is often interrupted by visits from companions. Fre- 
quently his parents are away and he is left to his own devices. 
All of this irregularity makes against proper habits of work. 
It is a wonderful aid to study to have a definite place and a 
fixed time for doing school tasks. The learner soon gets accus- 
tomed to work under systematic conditions of study, and the 
difficulties of getting down to his lessons are correspondingly 
diminished. When once he has achieved a habit of regular 
work it is an easy matter to do this work at the customary time 
and in the customary place. He thus acquires a propensity for 
work, just as he acquires a propensity for procrastination when 
he has no fixed habits of study. 

(c) When the pupil is not directed in his work he often acquires 
blundering and wasteful methods of study. — In all learning blind 
trial and error is an extremely wasteful and unsatisfactory 
method of acquisition. It is wasteful, since much unnecessary 
energy is consumed in getting results that could be obtained 
equally well in much less time, if the learner had some idea of 



SUPERVISED STUDY ^6^ 

how to go about his work. It is unsatisfactory, since rarely 
does the learner under these conditions of undirected effort ac- 
quire the best methods of study. He blunders on ways of doing 
his school tasks, but seldom knows whether or not they are the 
best methods. Indeed, he seldom considers the question of 
using proper methods. The problem is usually one of which 
he has little comprehension. Consequently inefficient habits 
of study result from haphazard methods hit upon by the student 
who is working without guidance. 

(d) The learner is often given unwise aid by parents or friends. — 
At times, when the pupil is not left to his own devices, he is 
aided by parents or friends. It is a common practice for the 
pupil to ask the aid of his father or mother in preparing his work 
for the next day. Frequently this aid consists in the helper's 
doing the work in whole or in part for the pupil, not in showing 
him how to do the work himself. Such aid is clearly undesirable. 
Instead of impressing knowledge, developing skill, and stimulat- 
ing ability, it smothers initiative and kills effort. Pupils who 
rely on others to do their tasks for them are as a rule poor pupils. 
Frequently classmates get together to work out their lessons. 
This again is seldom productive of the best results. When 
several are working together, much is apt to be discussed that 
does not concern the lesson. Further, the bright pupils are 
sure to do most of the work, while those of less ability or zeal 
follow or copy. For the bright pupil this is generally a waste 
of time, and for the dull pupil a barrier to self-activity. 

(e) Ifidividual differences ijt capacity demand hidividual meth- 
ods of help. — One of the most striking results in recent investiga- 
tions in educational psychology is that pupils of the same age 
and grade differ greatly in general and in particular abilities. 
The teacher may profitably spend a part of each recitation 
period in instructing the class as a whole in methods of work for 
the next day's lesson, but under these conditions his instruction 
is directed toward the entire group; it cannot consider indi- 



364 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

vidual capacities and needs. It is desirable to give this general 
help, but the problem of individual aid cannot be solved in the 
group assignment. In the supervised study period the teacher 
has the opportunity of directing his attention toward indi- 
viduals. 

(f ) Recent investigations have clearly shown the value of super- 
vised study. — Not only do the observations of daily experience 
and the conclusions of common-sense clearly indicate the de- 
sirability of supervised study, but the findings of experimental 
education give support to these observations and conclusions. 
The majority of pupils do better work w^en their study is 
properly directed. In particular the medium and the poor pupils 
show decided improvement under supervision. 

Minnick ^ taught two classes in plane geometry, in one of which 
the work was supervised and in the other unsupervised. The weekly 
averages of recitation grades over a period of fifteen weeks showed the 
division which had supervised study to be superior. Mid-term and 
final examinations also showed the same fact. Wiener ^ foimd great 
advantage in using divided sixty-minute periods, thirty minutes of 
which were devoted to study under supervision. Principal Brown 
of Joliet, 111., who for some years has employed supervised study in 
his high school says, — "Tabulation is made of all these teachers' 
reports at the close of the semester and an opportunity is given for 
comparing one semester's work with another for the past four or five 
years. The past semester which ended in June, 1914, showed thirty- 
eight different classes in which there were no failures. It shows that 
the percentage of failures is gradually being reduced to a minimum." ' 

Other investigators have arrived at conclusions similar to 
those cited above. 

Objections to Supervised Study. — ^Although there is general 
agreement among those competent to judge that supervised 

1 School Review, Vol. XXI., pp. 670-675 (1913). 

^ Ibid., Vol. XX., pp. 526-531 (1912). 

3 School and Home Education, February, 1915, p. 207. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 365 

study is desirable, certain objections have been raised against 
this reform in our prevailing school practice. Among these 
objections the following most merit consideration: — 

(a) Supervised study does not promote self-reliance on the part 
of the learner, — This is an objection that is often heard from 
teachers who are not in sympathy with the reform. ''The pupil 
should do his work himself," they affirm, "and not have some 
one constantly at his elbow to help him." This objection is 
based on a misunderstanding of the aims and methods of super-, 
vised study, which seek to acquaint the learner with the details 
of correct procedure, to train him in proper habits, to clear up 
his misunderstandings, and to help him overcome difficulties 
that he cannot surmount unaided. Supervised study does not 
aim to do the pupil's work for him. From what we have already 
said in regard to the unsatisfactory conditions of home study 
it is evident that the pupil who is left to his own devices is more 
in danger of receiving undesirable forms of aid than is the pupil 
who does his work under the direction of his teacher. 

(b) It consumes too much of the teacher^ s time. — "How is it 
possible," it is asked, "for the teacher to do the work required 
of him in other particulars and still to give a considerable part 
of his time to directing the study of his pupils?" There are 
two answers to this objection. In the first place, supervised 
study should be considered a part of the teacher's regular duties, 
a part as important as his class instruction, and in making out 
the teacher's schedule, the principal should recognize this fact. 
He should not demand additional work from the teacher, he 
should merely distribute it differently. In the second place, 
much of the time now devoted to the recitation may be elimi- 
nated when supervised study is introduced, since during the 
supervised study period some of those things can be accom- 
plished that are at present given over to the recitation. 

Testing for knowledge and individual drill, both of which are 
important parts of the typical high school recitation, may be 



366 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

largely assigned to the supervised study period. Testing the 
knowledge of the pupil is for the most part made necessary 
because of the fact that by this means alone can the teacher 
find out the progress of the pupil, discover his difficulties, and 
hold him down to work. In the supervised study period the 
teacher has a direct means of acquainting himself with what 
the learner i^ accomplishing. Under these circumstances the 
teacher is certain that what the pupil is doing is being done on 
his own initiative and with adequate concentration. Indeed, 
these results can be better secured by supervised study than by 
means of the ordinary recitation. Further, when the teacher 
finds during the study period that the pupil is weak in certain 
particulars, the necessary drill can be given him to overcome his 
weakness, — a much more economical procedure than giving him 
this practice during the recitation at the expense of the other 
members of the class. Thus, testing for knowledge and in- 
dividual drill will be largely eliminated from the recitation when 
supervised study is systematically developed, and the class 
period, considerably reduced in length, will be devoted to those 
matters that more particularly concern group instruction. 

(c) It imposes an additional expense on the school, since it 
requires a larger force of teachers. — ^This is a practical objection 
that has been urged against supervised study; however, it is an 
objection that is not without an answer. In the first place, in- 
creased expense should not be considered as the determining 
factor in educational progress. If supervised study is highly 
desirable, means should be secured for providing it. In the 
second place, the cost of establishing supervised study would 
not be great in most instances. Much can be accomplished by 
dividing the recitation period into two equal parts, and devoting 
half of it to supervised study. This change would necessitate 
no additional teachers. Again, when supervised study is in- 
stalled, the general study hall becomes obsolete, and the time 
of the teacher who has this study hall in charge is left free for 



SUPERVISED STUDY 367 

genuine supervised study. Here again there is no additional 
expense incurred. It is probable that in most medium-sized 
and large high schools, the addition of from five to ten per cent, 
in the teaching force would be adequate for the installation of 
a thorough system of supervised study. 

(d) // increases the length of the school day. — There are two 
different answers to this objection. It may be urged with much 
justification that such an increase is desirable; that it would be 
much better for the pupil if the high school were an all-day 
school; if all his activities, whether physical or mental, were 
under the supervision of his teachers. Since, however, it is 
not probable that the all-day high school will soon be established, 
we must meet the objection by denying that under a rationally 
conducted system of supervised study, any considerable increase 
in the school day would be made necessary. Many high schools 
have at present a session of from five to six hours, and with a 
six-hour session it is quite possible to install an adequate system 
of supervised study. The average high school pupil at present 
has four recitation periods a day of forty-five minutes each, 
consuming a total of three hours. He has, perhaps a half hour 
for lunch and recess, and the remainder of his time is occupied 
by study and laboratory work. Assuming that the school day 
covers six hours, five hours and twenty minutes of this could 
reasonably be devoted to intellectual work. Thus, if the pupil 
had on the average four lessons a day, eighty minutes could be 
devoted to each subject, from twenty to thirty of which could 
be given to the group recitation, and the remainder to study. 
Probably few high school pupils spend over an hour in effective 
work in preparing the average assignment, and if this is true, 
fifty minutes of supervised study ought to be ample for the prep- 
aration of most lessons. When the class period is freed from 
those activities which could easily be much better performed in 
the supervised study period, a half hour will prove an adequate 
time for the recitation. 



368 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

(e) It necessitates additional school rooms. — ^Here again is a 
practical objection of considerable importance. In many school 
buildings there are recitation rooms which are capable 
of holding approximately one hundred pupils. Under present 
conditions, these are frequently used as study halls. There 
are also smaller rooms in which one class recites while 
another group is studying. Under any well-conceived plan of 
supervised study, preparation of lessons in the large hall and 
in the rooms in which a recitation is being conducted will be 
discontinued. The latter practice is, of course, the more objec- 
tionable, since the teacher, the pupils who are reciting, an^ the 
pupils who are studying are subject to distraction, and since 
further the teacher can give no attention to the study pupils, 
who work without direction. 

The difl&culty in most of our high schools today is not so 
much a lack of room, as a lack of its proper distribution. The 
difficulty of adequate space for supervised study is in part over- 
come by the scheme of extending the recitation period and de- 
voting one part of it to the ordinary functions of the lesson, 
and the other part to supervised study. When the large study 
halls are used, the pupils may be divided into several groups, 
and a teacher assigned to each group. Such devices as these 
should be considered as temporary expedients, however. In 
the plans of new high school buildings, there should be provision 
for an adequate number of small rooms, rooms seating not more 
than thirty-five pupils. Such rooms may be used either for 
recitation or for supervised study. Larger rooms may be pro- 
vided for lectures, demonstrations, drill classes, and school as- 
semblies. 

Forms of Supervised Study. — In practically all high schools, 
pupils have free periods which they are required to devote to 
study. In a few schools there is such a free period for all the 
pupils at the same time, but as a rule these free periods are 
distributed throughout the school day, and in individual in- 



SUPERVISED STUDY 369 

stances are determined by the pupil's program of study. Con- 
sequently at any hour in the day, some pupils will be reciting 
in the classroom, or working in the laboratory or shop, while 
others will be engaged in study. Study under these conditions 
is supervised only in the sense that a teacher is present to main- 
tain order, and in rare instances to answer questions and give 
aid. As we have already said, this study is generally conducted 
in a large room known as a study hall, or in smaller rooms in 
which a recitation is at the same time being held. In the latter 
case, however, there is no question of supervision in any sense 
of the word. The teacher gives attention to the study pupils 
only when there is a positive breach of order. He has no op- 
portunity to give them further consideration. 

Any real aid that is given to pupils in preparing their work 
under conditions such as those described above is usually effected 
by keeping certain pupils after school. Only those pupils are 
required to remain who show clear evidences of not doing their 
work well. Further, this device is regarded by most pupils in 
the light of a punishment, rather than as a kindly office on the 
part of the teacher. Thus, the attitude with which the pupil 
approaches his study is often negative, and at times partly 
rebellious. The teacher, too, is apt to consider this part of his 
work as a burden, and consequently to confine it to those who 
most need it. He cannot extend it to all pupils who would re- 
ceive benefit from it. At best, it is a makeshift, and cannot 
properly be considered as a systematic attempt to supervise 
study. Of the devices that definitely seek to direct the learning 
activities of the pupil, the following are the most important: — 

(a) The unprepared lesson. — This device has great merit, 
but is not sufficient to meet the needs of the learner. It is com- 
monly employed in such subjects as foreign language, history, 
or English, although it may be used in any subject in the cur- 
riculum. In these subjects, the class usually recites in the con- 
ventional manner on four periods during the week, but on the 



370 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

fifth period, they assemble to consider an advance lesson that 
has not been previously studied. The period of the unprepared 
lesson is frequently used by the teacher for the purposes of a 
general assignment, during which methods of study may be 
emphasized. 

The writer recalls in particular an unprepared lesson of this type 
in a class in Latin. The instructor, a man of great skill and long ex- 
perience, spent the entire hour in showing the class how to read a 
passage in their text at sight. There was unusual interest in the 
work, and the results were excellent. Unprepared lessons of this 
same general nature were common in this school, and by means of 
them the pupils were given substantial training in the technique of 
study. 

(b) The general sitcdy period. — We have already mentioned 
the fact that in some schools a single period a day is set aside at 
which all the pupils engage in study. This may be developed 
into an effective though limited means of supervised study by 
requiring the teachers to take charge of their home rooms dur- 
ing this period, and to assist the pupils who are there assembled. 
Under this plan, pupils are allowed to leave their home rooms in 
order to get assistance from teachers of the special subjects 
which they are preparing during this study period. 

(c) The divided period. — Under this device, the recitation 
period is cut into two parts of approximately equal length, one 
half of which is devoted to the group recitation, and the other 
half to directed study. This plan has been effectively worked 
out by Principal William Wiener of the Newark, N. J., High 
School, and by Professor Merriam of the University High School 
at Columbus, Mo. It has been adopted in a considerable 
nimiber of high schools, in some instances being accompanied 
by a slight extension of the class period. It has the merits of 
not interfering with the regular school program, and of being 
flexible and adapted to the varying needs of the class. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 37I 

(d) The double period. — This plan has for some time been 
employed by Principal J. Stanley Brown of the Joliet, 111., High 
School. In general "the first period of the two, each forty 
minutes long, is spent in the conduct of the recitation; the 
second period is spent in directed study, with whatever as- 
sistance may be found necessary, according to the need de- 
veloped either during the preceding recitation or the examina- 
tion of the lesson for the following day. . . . The amount of 
the teacher's work, under the new plan, is no greater than under 
the old plan, but the effectiveness of the work is its main point 
of defense." ^ 

Purposes for which the Period for Supervised Study may 
be used. — The period of supervised study may be used by the 
teacher for several purposes, among which the following deserve 
particular consideration: — 

(a) The period may be devoted in part or as a whole to a general 
assignment. — At times when a new topic of considerable im- 
portance is being taken up, the teacher can spend to advantage 
an entire period in properly preparing the class for the study of 
the topic. On such occasions previous work relating to and 
leading up to the new^ work may be briefly reviewed, important 
points may be emphasized, difficulties explained, and methods 
of study outlined. While such an extended assignment is not 
often necessary, there are occasions when it is extremely im- 
portant. 

(b) It may be used as a means of summarizing and fixing the 
lesson that has just been taken up in the class. — It would perhaps 
be well to devote the first few minutes of most supervised study 
periods to a recall and organization of the main points in the 
recitation just finished. This is an excellent device for making 
clear and fixing in the mind the most essential topics of the 
recitation period. It is particularly important in those subjects 

^ Quoted from Dr. Brown's description, School and Home Education, Feb., 
1915- 



372 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

which require the taking of notes that these should be organized 
and reduced to intelligible and permanent form as soon after 
the class period as possible. 

(c) It may be used to habituate the learner in the technique of 
study. — ^This is one of the most important functions of the super- 
vised study period, and one that should find particular emphasis 
in the case of first year high school pupils, and of pupils taking 
up a new subject. Few learners of high school age have any 
adequate idea how to go about their work. Pupils in the be- 
ginning of the study of history, for example, should have a 
definite notion of how to read and comprehend intelligently 
an assignment. The class should be drilled in selecting the 
main thoughts, and in properly relating the essential facts. 
They should be accustomed to making outlines, they should be 
taught to formulate problems, and be trained in exercising his- 
torical judgments. We have already spoken of the importance 
of using in a foreign language supervised study periods for the 
purpose of training the pupils in intelligent and economical 
methods of translation. In mathematics, too, it is obvious that 
one of the most important phases of instruction consists in 
developing methods of procedure. In geometry, in particular, 
much time is wasted by the average pupil when he learns the 
propositions as they are worked out in the text-book. If study 
periods were properly supervised, the pupil could develop the 
proofs under the guidance of the teacher and thus get some- 
thing from the study of geometry that resembles training in 
thinking. History, foreign language, and mathematics, however, 
are not the only subjects of instruction that require emphasis 
on the methods of study. There is no subject in the curriculum 
that does not have its special technique, and with this technique 
the learner should be made familiar. 

(d) It may be used in discovering individual needs and in 
giving individual aid. — No teacher can do his best work unless 
he understands his pupils as individuals. By observing how 



SUPERVISED STUDY 373 

the learner works, the teacher can definitely find out just what 
the pupil is able to accomplish, and where his difficulties lie. 
Thus the teacher discovers the nature and direction of the pupil's 
errors, and consequently can aid him at those points at which 
he most needs help. It is the function of the teacher to explain 
to the learner those things that are obscure, to call to his atten- 
tion those facts, principles, and methods of procedure that are 
not comprehended, and finally to drill him on those things in 
which he is weak. 

Equally important for the teacher in directing the pupil's 
work is the knowledge of the things in which the pupil has at- 
tained the desired efficiency, for in these things the learner may 
be left to his own resources. The teacher should further gain a 
clear idea of the accomplishments of the superior pupil, and 
will on the basis of this knowledge assign to him work that is a 
real test of his ability. Thus, the bright pupil will be freed from 
the treadmill activity of going over those things that he already 
has mastered, and will be given an opportunity for the intellec- 
tual growth which under the present system of class instruction 
is too often lacking. 

Fundamental Principles to be Emphasized in the Tech- 
nique of Learning. — It has already been said that one of the 
chief functions of the supervised study period is the habituation 
of the pupil in correct methods of learning. This is so important, 
that a somewhat detailed analysis of the fundamental principles 
involved in the technique of learning is desirable at this point. 

(a) The teacher should first of all make sure that the physical 
co7iditions of the study room are such that the pupil can do his best 
ivork. — It is hardly necessary to emphasize the fact again that 
well-lighted, properly heated, and adequately ventilated school 
rooms are essential for high grade intellectual effort. There are 
other physical conditions that must be kept in mind. The 
pupil should be comfortably seated, with the materials that he 
requires for his work well arranged and immediately available 



374 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

for use when needed. There should be no unnecessary distrac- 
tion. Indeed, everything should be so ordered, that the learner 
may give the maximum amount of attention to the essential 
elements of his work.^ 

(b) The teacher should furnish the pupil with an incentive for 
doing his work rapidly and accurately. — ^The pupil must be made 
to feel that the study period is an opportunity for him. The 
teacher may properly urge the learner to do as much as possible 
at this time in order that the pupil may be free to do other things 
when the school is dismissed. If the pupil finds that it is to his 
advantage to concentrate his attention upon his school work 
during the study period, he will in all probability study with 
zest and determination. His definite reward for good work will 
be his freedom from school tasks at the completion of the school 
day. This is a compelling motive. 

The pupil will discover further that under efficient direction 
he can accomplish much more in a given time, th^ he can when 
he studies by himself; and this should furnish an added incen- 
tive for serious effort during the study hour. However, the 
teacher must remember that unless the learner does his work 
faithfully and well, he may find but little advantage in working 
under direction, and therefore may place but slight importance 
on the value of the study period. 

An additional motive for study may be found if the teacher 
sets before the pupil a certain desired standard of achieve- 
ment, — so many facts to be mastered in history, so many lines 
to be translated in a foreign language, so many problems to be 
solved in algebra, and so on, during the prescribed time for 
work. Likewise, the teacher may stimulate the zeal of the 
learner to increase the amount accomplished day by day, until 
at length the pupil is able to cover the entire assignment during 
the study period. Such incentives as these are among the most 
important. There are others, of course, that may be used from 

* See Chapter VII., p. 130. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 375 

time to time with various groups and individuals, and the 
teacher should be constantly alert to the necessity of motivat- 
ing in every legitimate way the pupil's habits of study. ^ 

(c) The teacher must insist that the learner begin his work 
promptly. — One of the greatest wastes in home study is caused 
by the fact that many pupils have no idea of how to get started. 
It may take the learner ten, fifteen, or twenty minutes actually 
to begin to study. Not infrequently he consumes a third of his 
time in "warming up." The teacher should use every device to 
insure at the opening of the study period a prompt beginning. 
We have already mentioned the fact that the tools and materials 
for work should be at hand. There should be no necessity for 
the sharpening of pencils, sorting of papers, and rummaging 
through desks for books and supplies. Again, the pupil should 
be habituated in beginning at once those more mechanical 
parts of his work that do not require highly adapted attention, 
sustained thought, or penetrating analysis. He may not be 
able immediately to concentrate his mind on the details of a 
proof in geometry, but he can at least draw the figure, and see 
what the construction signifies; he may not be able to get his 
mind down to translating his language assignment, but he can 
start his lesson by learning vocabularies and forms; he may not 
at the outset be sufficiently alert to begin the composition of his 
theme in narration, but he can commence by jotting down the 
events that are to form the basis of his writing.^ 

It has already been suggested that the first part of the study 
period may be devoted to a review and summary of the lesson 
just finished in the class. This review is something that the 
pupils can begin on at once, since it requires no new orientation 
or adaptation of attention, and no original thought. Under all 
circumstances, the teacher must see to it that the pupils make 
a beginning, even if it involves a little more than going through 

^ See Chapter IT., pp. 27, 31-35 and Chapter IV., pp. 72-80. 
2 See Chapter IV., pp. 62-64. 



376 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

certain physical motions, and that they do not spend a large 
part of their time in the agony of getting started. 

(d) The teacher must require the pupil to maintain sustained 
effort until the close of the study period. — Not only do many 
learners waste time in getting started, but they slow up in their 
work, as the time to end their task approaches. Studies of the 
curve of work show, however, that when the learner is aware of 
the approach of the end of his task, and when he desires to make 
a good record, he puts forth additional effort toward the end. 
If the pupil has a motive for wishing to do efficient work, he will 
increase his activities as the study period approaches its close. 
The teacher should strive to provide the pupil with an incentive 
for finishing at top speed, and should impress upon him the de- 
sirability of an "end spurt." Like a prompt beginning, high 
grade effort at the end becomes a habit when insisted on by the 
teacher, and when practiced by the pupil. 

(e) The teacher must demand that the pupil concentrate on his 
work under all circumstances. — While concentration always 
results from a motive for work, and while the teacher should do 
all in his power to motivate the study period, he should insist 
on an attentive attitude on the part of the pupil even when no 
adequate motive for study is present. By merely emphasizing 
an attentive attitude, the teacher impresses the pupil with 
the idea of sustained effort, and this idea may ultimately 
develop into a permanent attitude of attention ingrained in a 
habit. 

(f) The teacher should make sure that the pupil, before he begins 
the detailed study of a lesson, knows in general what the lesson is 
about. — ^At times the main purpose and aim of the lesson is 
developed in the assignment. This is generally the most de- 
sirable way of bringing this aim to the attention of the pupils. 
When, however, the assignment has not been carefully developed 
the teacher should at least call the attention of the class to the 
most important points involved in the new lesson. The learner 



SUPERVISED STUDY 377 

should not work in the dark; he should have the main objects 
of his study definitely before him. 

(g) The teacher should accustom the pupil to read a lesson over 
as a whole, before he concentrates attention on various elements and 
details. — This is particularly true, as we have already said, of 
such a subject as history or literature, but it also applies in a 
measure to every subject in the curriculum.^ There should be 
a preliminary orientation of the work to be done even in study- 
ing a lesson in algebra or geometry, or in the translation of a 
foreign language. It is often desirable to show the pupil how to 
translate the assignment as a whole before he works out de- 
tailed diflSculties. Study by wholes emphasizes relationships 
and general aims, while study by parts clears up special dif- 
ficulties, but often obscures the significance of the whole. The 
rule in study should be to learn by wholes at the start, then 
to concentrate the attention on individual difficulties, and 
finally to go over the entire work again in its totality, thus link- 
ing together the various elements, and securing a comprehensive 
view of the entire subject of study. 

(h) The teacher shoidd afford the pupil an opportunity at the 
close of the study period to review the most essential details, and fit 
them together in a significant scheme. — This follows of necessity 
from what has been said in the preceding paragraph. A final 
review and synthesis is necessary for any adequate understand- 
ing of the details previously studied. The most economical 
time for this review is at the completion of a period of relatively 
detailed study. 

(i) During the study period, the teacher should emphasize the 
practice of recall by the learyier. — Learners often make the mis- 
take of confining their entire attention to the book before them 
or the materials immediately at hand. They bury themselves 
to such an extent in the materials, that they do not adequately 
comprehend the meaning of these materials, or find out where 

^ See Chapter IV., p. 66. 



378 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

their difficulties lie. A learner may read over an assignment in 
history again and again and yet have no clear idea of what it 
signifies. If he would stop for a moment, shut the book, and 
try to recall the essential facts therein contained, he would im- 
press these facts more surely on his memory and would more 
adequately comprehend their relation. Some facts, too, he 
would find that he could not recall at all, while others would 
be hazy and uncertain. Such facts he would then study more in 
detail and with greater emphasis until he had mastered them. 
Similarly in other subjects of the high school curriculum, judi- 
cious recall from time to time serves as an important aid in their 
mastery. 

(j) The teacher should assist the piipils in making an outline 
of those topics of study that contain important facts and principles 
with subordinate details. — Often such an outline is best worked 
out when the learner sets down in each paragraph read the 
main topic of discussion, then seeks to find the subordinate ideas 
that are related to this topic and endeavors to arrange them in 
their proper sequence. At times an elaborate system of out- 
lining may be necessary with main topics, sub-topics, and de- 
tailed items under these. In general, however, a detailed analysis 
is not necessary. A scheme that is over-logical and minute 
may defeat its own purpose. Sometimes the best kind of out- 
line is obtained when the learner underscores the main topics 
in his text, or writes out a marginal analysis. 

Parker ^ in his discussion of the outline points out the fact that 
it may serve the purpose of getting the attention immediately adapted 
to the work in hand. He says, "The practice of making an outline 
on paper is another habit of going through the motions that helps in 
securing attention in studying. For example, in beginning this 
chapter about half-past seven one evening I was possessed with the 
idea of going to a neighboring minstrel show. I couldn't get the 
thoughts of the singing and eccentric dancing permanently out of my 

* Op. ciL, p. 407. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 379 

mind. But I also wanted to get to work on the chapter. So, at a 
favorable moment, when the thought 'write the chapter' was domi- 
nant, I started to make the appropriate motions by jotting down some 
headings in the outline. The thought 'go to the show' kept coming 
back, but the outlining motions helped to inhibit it. Suddenly it 
occurred to me to look at my watch, and it was nine o'clock, too late 
to go, and I had made considerable progress in thinking out the chap- 
ter. Similarly, students will find that the outlining of assigned read- 
ings will serve as an important mechanical aid to attention." 

(k) The teacher should accustom the pupil to memorize ideas 
rather than mere facts; however , when verbatim memory is neces- 
sary, he should insist that it be exact and complete. — As a rule, the 
high school pupil is woefully lacking in ability to select the essen- 
tial facts and principles contained in the book that he reads, or 
the materials that he manipulates. As he progresses in his 
school course, he acquires greater power in this respect, but 
there is never a time when he does not need wise and careful 
guidance. The teacher must do all in his power to lead the 
pupil to see the important facts that lie behind words and ob- 
jects, and give these their meanings. Rote memory at this 
stage of learning plays but a small role. However, there are 
times when not only meanings are important, but the words in 
which these meanings are expressed. When such rote memory 
is required, the teacher should impress upon the learner its 
necessity and value. The high school pupil should never be 
above learning by heart. 

(1) The teacher should impress upon the learner the necessity 
of looking for concrete examples and applications of general prin- 
ciples, and of interpreting isolated facts in terms of broader mean- 
ings. — In our discussion in regard to reasoning, we emphasized 
the fact that the general must find significance through its 
exemplification in particulars, and that particular instances 
must acquire a meaning in relation to general principles. To 
make the pupils understand the importance of this relation- 



380 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING 

ship of the general to the particular and the particular to the 
general, and to accustom them to the interpretation of the ab- 
stract through the concrete, and the opposite, is one of the most 
important habits which the teacher can inculcate through super- 
vised study.^ 

(m) The teacher should show the pupil how to use in the most 
economical way hooks for reference and collateral reading. — ^Few 
pupils at the beginning of their high school course have any idea 
how to run down a topic in the books assigned to them for col- 
lateral reading, or how effectively to use books of reference. 
Since this is an important part of their school work, they should 
learn its technique as soon as possible. They should know how 
to get information from encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs, 
gazetteers, and indexes. Poole's Index, in particular, should be 
familiar to them. Pupils who are doing general reading should 
be carefully instructed as to the most effective method of taking 
notes on such reading, and of writing these notes up in a con- 
venient and intelligible form.^ The older pupils may be intro- 
duced to the technique of taking notes on cards and working 
them up into a personal reference system. 

The Indirect Results of Supervised Study Constitute one 
of its Chief Values. — While the main aim of supervised study is 
to aid the pupil in his learning and habituate him in effective 
methods of work, there are certain indirect results that should 
be kept in mind in estimating the value of this proposed innova- 
tion in high school practice. 

In the first place, the teacher through the medium of the 
supervised study period is brought into contact with his pupils 
as individuals. In this way he gets vital insights in regard to 
their attitudes, habits, interests, knowledge, and skill. He 
learns to know his class as he never could know it through the 
medium of the recitation alone. Thus he acquires the ability of 
dealing with individuals as individuals. This knowledge of 
1 See Chapter XIII., p. 288. 2 See Chapter XI., p. 228 f. 



SUPERVISED STUDY 381 

the pupil's mind is important not only in its application during 
the supervised study period, but also during the recitation. 
Frequently teachers make the mistake during the classroom 
exercise of treating all pupils as if they were exactly alike, and 
of expecting the same thing from each and every one. This is 
unfortunate not only as far as the individual pupils are con- 
cerned, but also unfortunate from the standpoint of the class 
as a whole. The best recitation is that in which each and every 
pupil is doing those things that he can best do in terms of the 
needs and abilities of the class as a whole, thus attaining the 
ideal to which we have often referred in previous pages, the ideal 
of the cooperative class. 

In the second place, when supervised study becomes an 
essential part of high school instruction, the conduct of the 
recitation will be entirely changed, much to its advantage. 
We have frequently discussed the time wasted in testing the 
pupil's knowledge and in giving individual drill exercises during 
the class period. As we have seen, it will be possible for the 
teacher during the study period to determine very accurately 
just what each pupil knows, and what he can do. It will also 
be possible to drill each pupil on those points where he shows 
particular weakness; hence it will be no longer necessary to 
spend the time of the recitation for this purpose. Supervised 
study means the elimination of lesson-hearing, so often the bane 
of high school teaching today. When the necessity for testing 
the knowledge of the pupil and for drilling him during the class 
exercises no longer exists, then the teacher will be compelled to 
use the recitation to realize the main purpose for which it is 
intended, namely, — for the stimulation of interests, for the ac- 
quiring of insights and appreciation, and for the development 
of reflective thinking. When this purpose is achieved, the mil- 
lennium in high school teaching will be at hand. 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The following list of books and articles is not intended to be 
a complete bibliography of the literature relating to the topics 
discussed in the foregoing pages. The aim of the writer has been 
to select some of the most important discussions concerning the 
problems of the high school, as a basis for the student's wider 
reading. 

Books for General Reference 

The following books should be kept on hand for constant 
reference: — 

Brown, J. F. The American High School (1909). 
Judd, C. H. Psychology of High School Subjects (191 5). 
Monroe, P. Principles of Secondary Education (1914). 
Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools (19 15). 
The School Review, University of Chicago Press (particularly recent 
volumes). 

Bibliography for Chapter I 

Bolton, F. E. The Secondary School System of Germany (1900). 
Boynton, F. B. A six-year high school course. Ed. Rev., Vol. XX., 

pp. 515-19 (1900). 
Briggs, T. H. Possibilities of the junior high school. Education, 

Vol. XXXVEI., pp. 279-89 (1917). 
Brown, E. E. The Makhig of our Middle Schools (1903). 
Brown, H. A. The reorganization of secondary education in New 

Hampshire. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXH., pp. 145-56; 235-4S (1914). 
Brown, J. F., The American High School. Chapters I., II., HI., and 

XIII. 
Brown, J. S. Present development of secondary schools, etc. Sch. 

Rev., Vol. XHL, pp. 15-18 (1905). 

383 



384 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Brown, J. S. The Joliet Township High School. Sch. Rev., Vol. IX., 

pp. 417-32 (1901)- 

Cooley, E. G. Vocational Education in Europe (191 2). 

Cubberley, E. P. Does the present trend toward vocational educa- 
tion threaten liberal culture? Sch. Rev., Vol. XIX., pp. 454-65 
(1911). 

Changing Conceptions of Education (1909). 

Davis, C. 0. High School Courses of Study (1914). 

Dewey, J. The educational situation. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1902, 
pp. 50-79. 

The high school of the future. Sch. Rev., Vol. XI., pp. 13; 

17-20 (1903). 

Ehot, C. W. Changes needed in American secondary education. 

General Education Board (19 16). 
Farrington, F. E. French Secondary Schools (1910). 

Commercial Education in Germany (1914). 

Flexner, A. A modern school. General Education Board (1916). 
Gray, A. A. The junior college in California. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXIII., 

pp. 465-73 (1915)- 
Hall, G. S. The high school as the people's college vs. the fitting 
school. Fed. Sem.., Vol. IX., pp. 63-73 (1902). 

Educational Problems, Vol. II., Chapter XXIII. (191 1). 

Hinchman, W. S. The American School (1916). 

HolHster, H. A. High School Administration (1909). 

High School and Class Management (191 5). 

Inglis, A. J. A fundamental problem in the reorganization of the 

high school. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXIII., pp. 307-18 (1915). 
Johnston, C. H. High School Education (19 12). 

The Modern High School (1914). 

Judd, C. H. Psychology of High School Subjects. Chapter XIX., 

pp. 473-508- 

The junior high school. Sch. Rev.y Vol. XXII I., pp. 25-33 

(1915). 

The meaning of secondary education. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXL, 



pp. 11-25 (1913). 

Lyttle, E. W. et al. Report of the committee on a six-year course of 
study. Proc. N, E. A. for 1908, pp. 625-28. 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 385 

McLane, C. L. The junior college. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXI., pp. 161-70 

(1913)- 
Monroe, P. Principles of Secondary Education. Chapters I.-VI., 

pp. 1-245; Chapter XXI., pp. 745-74- 
Norwood, C. and Hope, A. H. The Higher Education of Boys in Eng- 
land (1909). 
Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter II., 

pp. 5-24. 
Russell, J. E. German Higher Schools (1899). 
Sachs, J. The American Secondary School and Some of its Problems 

(1912). 
Sisson, E. 0. College students' comments on their own high school 

training. Sch. Rev., Vol. XX., pp. 649-64 (191 2). 
Smith, F. W. The High School (1916). 
Snedden, D. The high school of to-morrow. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXV., 

pp. 1-15 (1917). 

Problems in Educational Readjustment (1913). 

Stout, J. E. The High School. Part I., pp. 1-87 (1914). 

Strayer, G. D. and Thorndike, E. L. Educational Administration^ 

pp. 165-75 (1913). 
V. S. Bureau of Education, Statistical Division. Public and private 

high schools. Bulletin No. 22 (1912). 
Wheeler, G. The six-year high school. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXI., pp. 

239-45 (1913). 
Whitney, F. P. Differentiation of courses in the seventh and eighth 

grades. Ed. Rev., Vol. XLI., pp. 127-34 (191 1). 
Young, J. R. Reorganization of the high school curriculum. Ed. 

Rev.y Vol. LIII., pp. 122-36 (1917). 

Bibliography for Chapter II 

Atkinson, F. W. The capacities of secondary school students. Sch. 

Rev., Vol. v., pp. 642-52. 
Bernheimer, C. S. and Cohen, J. M. Boys* Clubs (1914). 
Bigelow, M. A. Sex Education (1916). 
Blount, R. E. The responsibility of the teacher with regard to the 

teaching of sex-hygiene. Proc. N. E. A. for 1914, pp. 470-75. 



386 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Blount, M. p. Sexual reproduction in animals; the purpose and 
methods of teaching it. Proc. N. E. A. for 191 2, pp. 1324-27. 

Brown, J. F. The American High School, Chapters VIII. and XI. 

Burnham, W. H. Suggestions from the psychology of adolescence. 
Sch. Rev., Vol. V., pp. 652-65 (1897). 

The study of adolescence. Fed. Sent,, Vol. I., pp. 174-95 

(1891). 
Earhart, L. B. Types of Teaching. Chapter XI., pp. 130-49 (191 5). 
Fender, C. W. Some experiments in the teaching of sex-hygiene in 

a city high school. Sch. Sci. and Math., Vol. XIV., pp. 573-78 

(1914). 
Fish, E. V. The Boy and the Girl (191 1). 
Forbush, W. B. The Boy Problem (1907). 
Hall, G. S. Adolescence (1907). 

Youth (1906). 

James, W. Principles of Psychology. Vol. II., pp. 383-441 (1890). 
Judd, C. H. Psychological characteristics of the immediate grades. 

School Review Monographs, No. 3 (1913). 
King, I. The High School Age (19 14). 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. The Individual in the Making, pp. 216-54 (1911). 
Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. I., pp. 44-45 (1911). 

Principles of Secondary Education. Chapters VII. and VIII., 

pp. 246-355. 

Perry, A. C. Problems of the Elementary School. Chapter X., pp. 199- 

220 (1910). 
Slaughter, J. W. The Adolescent (191 1). 
Strayer, G. D. A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Chapter XII. 

(1911). 
Strayer, G. D. and Thorndike, E. L. Educational Administration. 

Pp. 46-53; 69-73. 
Swift, E. J. Youth and the Race (1912). 
Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology. Vol. I. (19 14). 

Bibliography for Chapter III 

Bagley, W. C. Professional training of high school teachers. Proc. 
N. E. A. for 1912, pp. 686-91. 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 387 

Book, W. F. The high school teacher from the pupil's point of view. 

Fed. Sent., Vol. XII., pp. 239-88 (1905). 
Boyce, A. C. A method for guiding and controlling the judging of 

teaching efificiency. Sch. Rev. Monographs, No. VI., pp. 71-82 

(1915). 
Bolton, F. E. The preparation of high school teachers. Sch. Rev., 

Vol. XV., pp. 97-122 (1907). 
Brown, E. E. The need of better preparation of teachers for 
secondary schools. Education, Vol. XXXIV., pp. 201-06 

(1913). 

Brown, J. F. The American High School, Chapter \T. 

Clapp, F. L. Scholarship in relation to teaching efificiency. Sch. 
Rev. Monographs, No. VI., pp. 64-70 (1915). 

Coffman, L. D. The rating of teachers in service. Sch. Rev. Mono- 
graphs, No. v., pp. 13-24 (1914). 

■ Relation between supply and demand for high school teachers 

Proc. N. E. A. for 191 2, pp. 681-86. 

Cratz, H. E. Characteristics of the best teacher as recognized by 
children. Fed. Sent., Vol. III., pp. 413-18. 

Cubberley, E. P. The Portland Survey. Chapters IV. and V. 

(1915). 
Dutton, S. T. School Management. Chapters II. and III., pp. 16-47 

(1908). 

Elliott, E. C. et. al. The education and training of secondary teach- 
ers. Fourth Year Book, Part I., Nat. Society jar the Study of Edu- 
cation (1905), 

Jacobs, W. B. Characteristics of a secondary school teacher. Sch. 
Rev., Vol. XII., pp. 706-15 (1904). 

James, H. R. Training of Secondary Teachers. Superintendent of 
Government Printing, Calcutta (1909). 

Johnston, C. H. Facilities for teacher-training in colleges and uni- 
versities. Sch. Rev. Monographs, No. VI., pp. 7-17 (191 5). 

Progress of teacher training. Report of Commissioner of 

Education for 1913, Vol. I., pp. 499-551. 

Kendall, C. R. The training of high school teachers. Sch. Rev., 
Vol. XXL, pp. 92-102 (1913). 

Learned, W. S. The Obcrlehrer (1914). 



388 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Luckey, G. W. A. Professional training of secondary school teach- 
ers in the United States. Teachers^ College, Columbia Univ. 
Press (1903). 

McFarland, R. Present facilities for the training of secondary school 
teachers in New England. Education, Vol. XXXIV., pp. 207-12. 

Palmer, G. H. The Teacher (1908). (See essay on The Ideal Teacher). 

Report of the Committee of Seventeen on Professional Preparation 
of High School Teachers. Proc. N. E. A. for 1907, pp. 523-668. 

Robertson, C. B. The training of secondary school teachers. Sch. 
Rev., Vol. XXI., pp. 225-34 (1913). 

Russell, J. E. Professional factors in the training of the high school 
teacher. Ed. Rev., Vol. XLV., pp. 217-36 (1913). 

Stout, J. E. The High School. Chapter XXIII., pp. 289-304. 

Strayer, G. D. and Thorndike, E. L. Educational Administration. 
Part II., pp. 77-146. 

U. S. Commissioner of Education. The Training of Teachers. Re- 
port for 191 5, Vol. I., Chapter VII., pp. 169-84. 

Bibliography for Chapters IV, V, VI 

Andrews, C. B. An Introduction to the Study of Adolescent Education. 

Chapter II., pp. 41-55; Chapter V., pp. 118-35 (1912). 
Arnold, F. Textbook of School and Class Management. Chapter IV., 

pp. 66-92 (1908). 
Bagley, W. C. School Discipline (1915). 
Brown, J. F. The American High School, pp. 285-302. 
Cronson, B. Pupil Self -Government (1907). 
Dewey, J. Interest and Efort in Education (1913). 
Button, S. T. School Management. Chapter VII., pp. 86-97. 
Healy, W. Honesty, particularly Chapter V. (191 5). 
Hughes, R. E. School Training. Chapter IV. (1905). 
Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. V., pp. 282-86; p. 540 

(1913). 
Morehouse, F. M. The Discipline of the School (1914). 
Munroe, J. P. New Demands in Education. Chapter XII (1912). 
Norwood, C. and Hope, A. H. The Higher Education of Boys in 

England, pp. 307-20. 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 389 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter XIV. 

Perry, A. C. Discipline as a School Problem (191 5). 

Puffer, J. A. The Boy and his Gang (191 2). 

Puller, E. Your Boy and his Training (191 6). 

Smith, H. B. Boys and their Management in School (1905). 

Stableton, J. K. Diary of a Western Schoolmaster (1900). 

Stout, J. E. The High School. Chapter XXI., pp. 255-273. 

Strayer, G. E. A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Chapter XV., 

pp. 157-66. 
Taylor, J. S. Art of Class Management and Discipline (1903). 
Thorndike, E. L. The Principles of Teaching. Chapter XI., pp. 179- 
205 (1906). 

Bibliography for Chapter VII 

Baker, J. H. Economy of time in education. Bureau of Education, 

Bulletin No. 38 (1913). 
Bray, W. J. A new locker system for chemical laboratories. Sch. 

Sci. and Math., Vol. XV., pp. 206-08 (1915). 
Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education. Proc. 

N. E. A. for 1913, pp. 217-46. 
Gilbreth, F. B. and Gilbreth, L. M. Fatigue Study (1916). 
Gilbreth, L. M. The Psychology of Management (1914). 
Geer, W. C. The teaching of chemistry in secondary schools. Sch. 

Rev., Vol. XIV., pp. 282-86 (1906). 
Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. I., pp. 390-94. 
O'Shea, M. V. Dynafjtic Factors in Education. Chapters XVI., 

XVII., and XVIII. (1906). 
Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter III. 
Perry, A. C. Problems of the Elementary School. Chapter VII. 
Rice, J. M. Scientific Management in Education (1913). 
Roark, R. N. Economy in Education (1905). 

Bibliography for Chapter VIII 

Bagley, W. C. Classroom Management. Chapter XV. (1907). 
Boring, E. G. The marking system in theory. Ped. Sem., Vol. XXI., 
pp. 269-77 (1914). 



390 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Colvin, S. S. Marks and the marking system as an incentive to study. 

Education, Vol. XXXII., pp. 560-72 (191 2). 
Courtis, S. A. Educational diagnosis. Educational Administration 

and Supervision, Vol. I., pp. 89-116 (1915). 
Finkelstein, I. E. The marking system in theory and practice. 

Educational Psychology Monographs, No. 10 (1913). 
Hanus, P. H. Measuring progress in learning Latin. Sch. Rev., 

Vol. XXIV., pp. 342-51 (1916). 
Johnson, F. W. A study of high school grades. Sch. Rev., Vol. XIX., 

pp. 13-24 (1911). 
KeUey, T. L., Educational guidance. Teachers College Contributions 

to Education, No. 71 (1914). 
Monroe, W. S. A test of the attainment of first year high school 

students in algebra. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXIII., pp. 1 59-1 71 

(1915)- 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter XXII. 

Rice, J. M. Educational research, causes of success and failure in 
arithmetic. The Forum, Vol. XXXIV., pp. 451-52 (1903). 

Rugg, H. O. The experimental determination of standards in first 
year algebra. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXIV., pp. 37-66 (1916). 

Rugg, H. O. and Clark, J. R. Standardized tests and the improve- 
ment of teaching in first-year Algebra. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXV., 

pp. 113-132 (1917). 
Seashore, C. E. Measurement of musical talent. Musical Quarterly y 

Vol. I, pp. 129-48 (1915). 
Starch, D. Educational Measurements (1916). 
Reliability and distribution of grades. Science, Vol. 

XXXVIIL, pp. 630-36 (1913). 
Steele, A. G. Training teachers to grade. Fed. Sem., Vol. XVIII., 

PP- 523-32 (1911). 
Stockard, L. V. and Bell, J. C. A preliminary study of the measure- 
ment of abilities in geometry. Journal of Ed. Fsychol., Vol. VII., 

pp. 567-580 (1916). 
Strayer, G. D. and Thorndike, E. L. Educational Administration. 

Pp. 207-49. 
Thorndike, E. L. Educational diagnosis. Science, Vol. XXXVIL, 

pp. 133-42 (1913)- 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 39 1 

Thorndike, E. L. Testing the results of the teaching of science. Sch. 
Sci. and Math., Vol. XI., pp. 315-20 (191 1). 

Bibliography for Chapters IX, X 

Brown, J. C. An investigation on the value of drill work in the funda- 
mental operations of arithmetic. Jour, of Ed. Psy., Vol. II., 
pp. 81-88 (1911). 

Colvin, S. S. The Learning Process. Chapters I., II., III., IV., IX., 
X., and XI (191 1). 

The practical results of recent study in educational psychol- 
ogy. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXI., pp. 307-22 (1913). 

Kirby, T. J. Practice in the Case of School Children (1913). 

Ladd, G. T. and Woodworth, R. S. Elements of Physiological PscyhoU 
ogy, pp. 572-82 (1911). 

Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. V., p. 542. 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools, Chapter VIII. 

Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process, pp. 41-50. 

Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology. Vol. II. 

Bibliography for Chapter XI 

Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. III., p. 456, p. 671; 

Vol.IV.,p. 553;Vol.V.,pp. 576-78. 
Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter XVII. 
Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process, pp. 107-13. 
Thorndike, E. L. Education, pp. 161-67 (1913). 

Bibliography for Chapter XII 

Adams, J. Exposition and Illustration in Teaching (1910). 

Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process, pp. 247-55, 278-80 (1905). 

Colvin, S. S. The Learning Process. Chapter XII. 

Curtis, E. W. The Dramatic Instinct in Education (1914). 

Dakin, F. A. Ways in which Latin may be brought into vital rela- 
tion with the school life of to-day. Classical Weekly, Vol. VII., 
pp. T93-99 (1914). 

Davis, H. N. Bridges as illustrative material on the parallelogram 
of forces. Sch. Sci. and Math., Vol. XV., pp. 185-98 (191 5). 



392 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Finlay- Johnson, H. The Dramatic Method of Teaching (1911). 
Henry, N. E. Illustrative material for Latin teachers. Classical 

Journal, Vol. VIII., pp. 1 15-17 (1913). 
Herts, A. M. The Children's Educational Theatre (191 1). 
Hodges, E. B. The general value of graphs. Sch. Sci. and Math., 

Vol. XIV., pp. 214-16 (1914). 
Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. IV., pp. 523-28. 
Perry, A. C. Problems of the Elementary School. Chapter VI. 
Vallance, C. A. Inspection of chemical industries by students in the 

secondary schools. Sch. Sci, and Math., Vol. XII., pp. 381-87 

(1912). 

Bibliography for Chapters XIII, XIV 

Bagley, W. C. The Educative Process. Chapters XIX. and XX. 

Blanchard, A. A. Elementary chemistry teaching as a means of de- 
veloping the power of independent scientific reasoning. Sch. Sci. 
and Math., Vol. X., pp. 382-87 (1910). 

Colvin, S. S. The Learning Process. Chapters XX., XXI., and XXII. 

Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. Chapter XII. (1916). 

How We Think (1910). 

Earhart, L. B. Types of Teaching. Chapters V., VI. 

Monroe, P. Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. II., p. 173; Vol. V., 
pp. 123-25. 

Moore, E. C. What is Education? Chapters VIII. and XI. (1915). 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter IX. 

Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Chapters V. and VI. 

Thorndike, E. L. Principles of Teaching. Chapters IX. and X. 

Bibliography for Chapter XV 

Betts, G. H. The Recitation (191 1). 

Keatinge, M. W. Suggestion in Education (1907). 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapters XVIII. 

and XX. 
Stevens, R. The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction 

(1912). 



SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 393 

Strayer, G. D. The Teaching Process. Pp. 1 14-28. 
Yamada, S. A study of questioning. Fed. Sem., Vol. XX., pp. 129- 
86 (1913). 

Bibliography for Chapter XVI 

Brown, J. F. The American High School. Chapter IX. 

Earhartj L. B. Types of Teaching. Chapter XV. and Appendix 

(1915). 
Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline and Educational Values (1909). 

Moore, E. C. The doctrine of general discipline. Education, Vol. 

XXXVII., pp. 312-24 (1917). 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapter II. 

Bibliography for Chapter XVII 

Bagley, W. C. Classroom Management. Chapter XIV. (1907). 

Breslich, E. R. Supervised study as a means of providing supple- 
mentary individual instruction. Nat. Soc. for the Study of Educ, 
Thirteenth Year Book, Part I., pp. 32-72 (1914). 

Teaching high school pupils how to study. Sch. Rev., Vol. 

XX., pp. 505-15 (1912). 

Dearborn, G. V. N. How to Learn Easily (19 16). 

Earhart, L. B. Systematic Study hi the Elementary Schools 

(1908). 
Giles, F. M. Investigation of study habits of high school students. 

Sch. Rev., Vol. XXII., pp. 478-84 (1914). 
Hall-Quest, A. L. Supervised Study (1916). 
Home Study Symposium, Journal of Education (1913). 
Jones, O. M. Teaching children to study. Education, Vol. XXX., 

pp. 236-44 (1909). 

Teaching Children to Study (1909). 

Judd, C. H. Psychology of High School Subjects. Chapter XVIII. 
Kennedy, J. The Batavia System (1914). 
Kitson, H. D. How to Use Your Mind (191 6). 
Lunt, F. S. Some investigations of habits of study. Journal of Edu- 
cational Psychology, Vol. I., pp. 344-48. 
McMurry, F. M. How to Study (1909). 



394 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Minnick, J. H. An experiment in the supervised study of mathe- 
matics. Sch. Rev., Vol. XXL, pp. 670-75 (1913). 

Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chapters XVI. 
and XXI. 

Ruediger, W. C. Teaching pupils to study. Education, Vol. XXIX., 
pp. 669-77. 

Sandwick, R. L. How to Study and What to Study (1915). 

Watt, H. J. The Economy and Training of Metnory (1909). 

Whipple, G. M. How to Study Effectively (1916). 

Wiener, W. Home-study reform. Sch. Rev., Vol. XX., pp. 526-31 
(1912). 



APPENDIX A 

PROBLEMS OF THE NOVICE IN TEACHING 

During the past few years, the writer has obtained written 
statements from one hundred high school teachers at the end of 
their first year of service as to their most important problems. 
These papers have been written in response to the question, — 
"What are the essential things that a beginning teacher should 
keep in mind? " A review of the replies to this query shows some 
interesting general tendencies and important facts. 

In the first place, the problem that stands out most definitely 
in practically all of these papers is that of discipline. This is 
shown by the circumstance that in ninety-two of the papers 
this problem is referred to directly, while in a large majority of 
the papers, it is given an important place in the discussion. 
Among the details of discipline considered, the following are 
most emphasized in the order named. Stated as maxims, they 
would read: — 

Start right, insisting on proper habits from the outset (thirty- 
eight papers). 

Be fair (thirty-one papers). 

Meet situations as they arise, with vigor and determination 
(twenty-eight papers). 

Insist on a respectful attitude; never tolerate insolence 
(twenty- three papers). 

Don't be sarcastic (twenty- two papers). 

Don't act rashly; reflect (twenty-one papers). 

Talk the offense over with the pupil, give him advice and 
counsel (eighteen papers). 

Be watchful (seventeen papers). 

395 



396 APPENDIX A 

Don't get angry (sixteen papers). 

Be firm (fourteen papers). 

Demand obedience (eleven papers). 

Use punishment only when other means fail (ten papers). 

Other factors entering into discipline are mentioned by va- 
rious writers, but not with sufficient imanimity to show any 
general tendency of opinion. 

Closely connected with discipline, is the personal attitude 
of the teacher, which is mentioned by seventy-seven writers; 
the details emphasized read as follows: — 

Seek to stimulate interest (fifty-five papers). 

Be enthusiastic about your work (fifty-two papers). 

Be sympathetic (forty-four papers). 

Have an objective attitude; don't take matters too personally 
(thirty- two papers). 

Seek personal contact with your pupils (twenty-four papers). 

Don't be a "know all" (seventeen papers). 

Strive to adapt yourself to conditions (fifteen papers). 

Try to learn from your pupils (thirteen papers). 

Don't get discouraged (eleven papers). 

Don't be too critical (ten papers). 

No other quality entering into the attitude of the teacher 
toward his work is mentioned in more than seven papers. 

Sixty-nine papers refer to the importance of method in teach- 
ing, and in particular mention most frequently the following: 

Have a plan, prepared in advance of the recitation (forty- 
three papers). 

Set a reasonably high standard of achievement, but one to 
which the average pupil can attain (thirty-four papers). 

Make pupils think (twenty-seven papers). 

Economize time (twenty-four papers). 

Supervise pupils' work (twenty-two papers). 

Consider individual needs and difficulties (twenty papers). 

Don't merely hear lessons, teach something (eighteen papers). 



APPENDIX A 397 

Don't blindly follow the methods you were accustomed to in 
college (seventeen papers). 

Emphasize the assignment (seventeen papers). 

Know the subject (sixteen papers). 

Mechanize routine (fifteen papers). 

Frame questions in advance with great care (thirteen papers). 

Don't talk too much (thirteen papers). 

Check up results, to know just what is being accomplished 
(eleven papers). 

No other item is mentioned in more than nine papers. 

Thirty-four papers call attention to the fact, that teachers to 
succeed should be progressive, and mention as essential to 
such progressiveness continued study after leaving college, the 
reading of educational literature, and attendance at teachers' 
gatherings. A number say emphatically that the teacher 
should not be content with the education he has received. He 
should be sensible of his ignorance in regard to subject-matter, 
the minds of his pupils, and methods of instruction. Several 
declare that no teacher should be complacent in regard to his 
achievements, but should constantly criticise his results, and 
seek to improve his work. 

Of the other matters touched on in these papers there is not 
sufficient unanimity to warrant their consideration. 

By way of summary it may be pointed out, that these be- 
ginning teachers are chiefly conscious of four main problems, 
namely, — that of the control and discipline of their classes; 
that of their personal attitude toward the class; that of methods 
of teaching; and that of their own inadequacy and need of self- 
improvement. The papers that discuss discipline clearly indi- 
cate that in most instances the writers have had no serious 
trouble with their classes, though practically all have found that 
their pupils need some control and direction. The control dis- 
cussed is chiefly by indirect methods. Only thirty-two papers 
specifically mention punishment, and these indicate that in the 



398 APPENDIX A 

opinion of the writers it should be employed only when other 
means fail. 

Concerning the personal qualities that a teacher should pos- 
sess there is a very substantial agreement in regard to the 
ability to arouse interest. The possession of enthusiasm for 
the work and a genuine sympathy with the pupil are considered 
indispensable by many of the writers. 

A very large percentage of those who discussed problems of 
instruction insist on the importance of a plan, prepared in ad- 
vance of the lesson. On the other hand, it is interesting to note 
that relatively few of the writers have felt that an extended 
knowledge of subject-matter is a prime pre-requisite for success- 
ful teaching. This lack of emphasis on knowledge of subject- 
matter is all the more noteworthy when we remember the fact 
that when they graduated from college probably the majority 
of these teachers had the point of view that such a knowledge 
was the prime essential in teaching. This lack of emphasis 
on the importance of knowledge of subject-matter, by teachers 
who have had seven or eight months' experience in the high 
school, would seem to indicate either of two facts, namely, — • 
that the teachers were so well prepared in college that they 
find themselves masters of their subjects, or that a high standard 
of scholarship is not demanded from them, either by principal 
or pupils, and that they get along comfortably with a modicum 
of knowledge. Since many of these hundred teachers were 
giving instruction in some subject on which they had not 
specialized in college, it would seem that the latter alternative 
is important in this explanation. That young teachers are not 
made more often to realize their ignorance is probably unfortu- 
nate. It indicates on the whole a relatively low grade of attain- 
ment on the part of the pupils, since apparently few teachers 
had difficulty in keeping ahead of the class, and it also indicates 
low standards of excellence in scholarship on the part of super- 
vising officers. 



APPENDIX A 399 

On the other hand, it is clear that in the minds of the teachers 
reporting, the problem of method has acquired large significance 
during their first year of teaching. This surely indicates the 
importance of this aspect of instruction, particularly when it is 
remembered that the majority of these teachers had little knowl- 
edge of, and small interest in, methods of instruction when they 
began to teach. The fact that many of these teachers have be- 
come definitely conscious of their deficiency in instructional 
skill and are as a rule oblivious of their lack of knowledge of 
subject-matter needs no further comment. 

Following are three papers taken from the entire group of 
one hundred received. In the main, they are typical papers, 
and show the general nature of much that was discussed by the 
hundred teachers replying. 



Paper I 

I believe that the teacher who can practice the following rules will 
be a success: — 

1. Look at pupils' acts objectively. 

2. Be patient; however poor a pupil's work is, he is not completely 
hopeless. 

3. Begin the routine work definitely at the beginning. 

4. Have the lesson well in hand; there will be less conscious exertion 
to maintain discipline. 

5. Be firm and definite in demands at all times. 

6. While doing any necessary clerical work, have the pupils busy 
with definite work. 

7. Get the pupils into an attitude of work at a definite time, and 
have them remain in that attitude until a definite time. 

8. Know your pupils as individuals; real acquaintance with the 
pupil makes harmony surer. 

9. Keep up a spirit of enthusiasm. Be an optimist! 

10. Be approachable, but also dignified and firm. 

11. Maintain a smooth temper. 



400 APPENDIX A 

Paper II 

I think the most important thing for the beginning teacher to know 
is the value of a good beginning. The teacher does well to make clear 
to the pupils at the very outset what kind of work, what kind of con- 
duct is expected of them and to let them know what specific offenses 
against good order will not be tolerated. The teacher would do well 
to know also that pupils will probably not do good work, and give 
good order, simply because it is expected of them. They will probably 
want to test her ability to hold them to the standards set, and the 
teacher should be ready to meet all such tests. 

I have found it helpful to select one problem at a time for attack, 
whether in presenting class work or in trying to improve discipline. 
Concentration of effort on one thing at a time carries one farther 
than divided effort in many fields. 

Perhaps not necessary to all, but surely helpful to me was this bit 
of advice: "Don't be easily discouraged." I made the mistake of 
expecting big results, and I was disappointed. I remembered the 
failings that my German professor told me all secondary school pupils 
brought to college with them, and I thought: My pupils shall not 
make these mistakes. It was discouraging to find them making them 
right along. On several occasions when results seemed very meager, 
a certain homely old saying prevented me from feeling extremely 
dissatisfied with myself — I was reminded that: "You can't make a 
silk purse out of a sow's ear." But even though the teacher may 
not be able to produce a quantity of silk purses, she ought not to re- 
gard her pupils, either, as so many sows' ears. It seems to me that 
the colleges set too high a premium on intellectualism, — ^I was ex- 
pecting too much, at any rate — and I found that the intellectual 
lights in a large city high school are not many. There ought tc be 
some other means of judging the teacher's work beside the examina- 
tion papers. She ought to strive for character building as much as 
for intellectual attainment, and have reason to be pleased with moral 
results if she gets them. 

Finally, I should say that the beginning teacher ought to have a 
great deal of determination and will. She ought to start out with a 
fairly definite mode of procedure in mind, make up her mind what 



APPENDIX A 401 

she wants accomplished, and then stick to it. Unless the will of the 
class is stronger than that of the teacher, or there is inability on one 
side or the other, she ought to be successful. 

Paper III 

The only question of really serious importance, assuming a well- 
educated and sensible teacher, is that of discipline. This must be 
gained before regular classwork can be done at all satisfactorily. 

At first, be extremely and inflexibly severe, much more than you 
wish to, or intend to throughout the year. Do not let the slightest 
infraction of a very rigid idea of discipline occur without first a word 
of warning, then a simple punishment (staying after school), then 
sending from the room. Later, when you are certainly and obviously 
in control, it is best to overlook minor lapses unless (as you will have 
found out by then) they are indicative of more serious trouble. 

Certain things must be nipped in the bud: whispering, and all 
willful making of trouble. For these, punishment may be immediate, 
without warning, as pupils know they are wrong, and previously made 
rules should not be expected. Indeed, rules of all kinds should be 
avoided as much as possible, since they tend to form a cumbersome, 
inflexible mode of control. 

Treat pupils from the start as if you really expected them to do 
right; do not at least show that you are looking for trouble. Use the 
same consideration you would with adults, until in special cases you 
may be forced to abandon it. 

When cases of disciplinary trouble arise, take pupils one at a time, 
never as a group, or even by twos and threes. A personal talk, in 
this way, will usually have excellent and lasting results, and saves 
an often unnecessary punishment. Where this method, and general 
appeals to reason, the right, and the pupil's better nature fail, sum- 
mary punishments must be used, rapidly increasing in severity should 
light ones fail. Enlistment of parental aid often helps a great deal if 
cases get extreme, but diplomacy as well as strict adherence to ab- 
solute truth in recounting affairs is evidently necessary. 

In classes so hard to discipline at first that there is noticeable dis- 
order, do not try to get good recitations; conduct the class in such a 



402 APPENDIX A 

way that all your attention is on behavior, not on recitations. Close 
watching, and sure punishment of offenders, will stop class-wide mis- 
behavior. Reseating pupils so that groups of offenders are broken 
up, and the worst ones either put in the front, directly in your sight, 
or at the back, where their eccentricities will not be seen and soon 
lose their "heroic" character, often suffices. 

If there are several offences, such as shufHing of feet, tapping of 
pencils, and whispering, take them one at a time, insisting on that 
one's being stopped until a proper habit is formed. Of course this 
does not mean that any flagrant disturbance be overlooked. 

When any trouble arises, make your decision a quick one. While 
you wait, the class may be getting a start on you. It may be best 
to make mistakes rather than hesitate. Experience will soon show 
how to act in most cases that arise. 

Do not consider that what pupils do is directed against you per- 
sonally. It is merely a general desire for a good time, and naturally 
takes the first opportunity; while they have nothing against you per- 
sonally, they are thoughtless, and if they see they can bother you, 
will continue to do it. 

Individual class work is a sure, if temporary, cure for disciplinary 
troubles, and usually gets pupils into right habits of application. 

Be friendly with pupils; make use of the personal touch outside of 
the classroom. Do not let friendliness degenerate into familiarity. 
At all times the teacher should have some reserve, should never let 
the class feel they understand his motives, thoughts, or feelings, 
should have some "margin of incomprehensibility." 

Coolness and fairness must be scrupulously attained. In this 
respect, it should be noted that pupils are very critical, and the 
teacher should take great pains to seem, as well as be, impartial. 

A detail often effective: if pupils kept after school want to be ex- 
cused, double the time the next day. It is hardly possible to investi- 
gate excuses, and this plan automatically punishes offenders. 

Finally, do not give up. Lapses may keep occurring for weeks or 
months; they should be uniformly and inevitably attended to. On 
the other hand, do not be over-confident. The class may seem to 
be — and actually be — under control, and a week of "letting down" 
before their habits are surely formed will break the habits up entirely. 



APPENDIX A 403 

Now, as to the lessons themselves. In the beginning of a new 
subject, go very slowly and surely for a while. Review and drill until 
every pupil is entirely familiar with the foundations. This is abso- 
lutely necessary, even if for a time it seems that no progress is being 
made; that the class is standing still. 

Talk slowly and distinctly. If nervous, consciously go even more 
slowly; pupils do not know your feelings if you act composed and take 
your time. Not only the subject-matter, but discipline, too, seems to 
suffer if all the pupils do not hear you well. 

Plan concretely for all the time in a period ; for every single minute 
if, after one or two experiences, you find yourself at a loss what to 
do. Write out the program just as you intend to follow it and have 
it handy — say in a book — where you can refer to it readily and with- 
out embarrassment. It is usually safe to depart from a minute pro- 
gram, if the recitation seems to tend that way. 

Never let a pupil feel for a minute that he is out of the class. This 
can be avoided in several ways. The best, of course, is to make the 
subject interesting. Another, get the class on the qui vive by calling 
unexpectedly, or stopping at odd moments to give a brief quiz; if 
they see this is a custom, they'll not dare not to pay attention. A 
quiz at the end of a period frequently makes the poorer pupils try to 
get all they can during a recitation, and by proper choice of questions 
will appeal to all. Call on the inattentive ones; this enlists, as a rule, 
the important factor, social pressure, since a failure caused by "day- 
dreaming" usually causes a smile over the class. Individual class 
work makes all pupils keep busy. 

This plan, — individual work in class, pupils working separately at 
their seats, doing another problem as soon as one is finished, with 
the teacher going about the room helping, noting weaknesses, getting 
ranks if desired, — is a very good one. It is economical, since all work 
all the time, the best and the poorest; it is helpfully adjusted, since 
the teacher gives each the aid he needs; it relieves disciplinary strain, 
since the teacher's attention is released so that he can if necessary 
give exclusive attention to it. Pupils seem to be interested in this 
method. 

Use a great deal of illustrative material; if you must use the de- 
ductive method (as in geometry) be sure to follow the general theorem 



404 APPENDIX A 

by concrete problems, especially numerical ones, even if as simple as: 
"A square has one side 4 ft. long. How long is the next side?" Do 
not stop with merely giving the illustration, as it is a tendency to do. 
Make the pupils give some of their own, or re-explain yours. The best 
of illustrations go in one ear and out the other (pursued at no great 
interval by the general fact intended to be illustrated) unless the 
pupil feels he is held to some minimum which he will be considered 
accountable for. 

After all, most of your advances in discipline and in teaching 
proper will come through experience. Advice at best is general, or 
if specific, suited only to some special teacher and some special situa- 
tions. Concrete and detailed knowledge of what to do in every situa- 
tion is an ideal, and can be gained only by meeting and coping with 
such situations; other methods are unsatisfactory although helpful 
to a degree. The feeling, "IVe been here before," gives one poise, 
sureness, and swiftness in the worst of situations, that can be gained 
in no other way. 



APPENDIX B 

AN gUTLINE FOR STUDENT GUIDANCE IN OBSERVATION IN THE 
GRADES AND IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 

(Read and carefully consider the entire outline before making 
any observations. In reporting your observations give your 
chief attention to the topics indicated below. However, do not 
confine yourself exclusively to these topics or the order in which 
they are presented. Whatever seems to you to be important 
in your observations in any class should be commented on.) 

A. The Grades 

Observation. I. External conditions of the classroom. — Effective 
school work cannot be done unless the external conditions are satis- 
factory. The teacher should consider carefully these conditions and 
do all that he can to make them optimal. Observe particularly the 
following points: — 

(a) Lighting. — Describe the number and location of the windows, 
notice how far they are from the ceiling, observe whether they are 
shut off from the light by surrounding walls or buildings. Do you 
think that the lighting is adequate for all of the pupils? 

(b) Heating and ventilation. — As you enter the room observe the 
temperature and the air. Is the room too warm or too cool for com- 
fort; is the air fresh? How is the room ventilated? 

(c) Seating of the pupils. — Do the seats and desks seem to be 
adapted to the pupils? Do the pupils sit in awkward and uncomfort- 
able positions? Is this due to improper seating or to improper habits 
on the part of the pupils? Does the teacher attempt to correct im- 
proper postures? 

(d) The mental atmosphere of the room. — Is the room quiet and 
orderly? If any of the pupils are restless and inattentive notice 

[405 



4o6 APPENDIX B 

what effect this seems to have. Observe particularly the attitude 
of the teacher. Is she calm and at ease, or does she seem to irritate 
and annoy the pupils? Notice particularly the quality of her voice; 
her posture while standing or sitting; her methods of enforcing dis- 
cipline. Also comment on her general disposition. Is it sympathetic 
and patient? Observe further whether she is vital and energetic, or 
whether she seems worn down and depressed by the day's work. 

(e) Summary. — Is your general impression that this classroom is 
well suited for excellent work? Give reasons for your answer to this 
question. 

Observation. II. Waste in the classroom. The ideal recitation is 
secured only when all of the class is working all of the time under con- 
ditions that secure the greatest efficiency. There are many sources 
of waste, among which the following are particularly to be observed: — 

(a) Loss of time in beginning the recitation. — Does the recitation 
start promptly? — ^Note causes of delay and suggest how they may 
be avoided. 

(b) Confusion and delay in passing materials (paper, pencils, books, 
corrected exercises, etc.). — Does the teacher have a plan in distribut- 
ing materials? Describe it. Can you suggest any better methods? 

(c) Careless use of the blackboard. — Can the part of the blackboard 
used be seen by practically all of the class? Is the front board used 
in preference to the boards at the sides and back of the room? Are 
many pupils sent to the board at once? Do they have ample space 
to work in? Do they write clearly and neatly? Do they pass promptly 
and do they begin their work at once? Is the work of the individual 
pupil brought to the attention of the class as a whole? Is a large 
amount of incorrect work written on the board? Is this carefully 
and emphatically corrected? 

(d) Lack of a definite plan for conducting the lesson. — ^Does the 
teacher seem to have a clear aim or set of aims in teaching the lesson? 
State these aims if you can discover them. Does she keep to these 
aims, or does she permit irrelevant questions, wandering discussion, 
and the emphasis of unessential details? Does she bring the lesson 
to a proper conclusion, or does she break it off in a hurried and un- 
satisfactory manner? Are the main points clearly emphasized and 
summarized? 



APPENDIX B 407 

Observation. III. Waste in the classroom (continued). 

(e) Unclear statements. — Does the teacher make vague statements? 
(These may be due either to lack of thought and skill in framing these 
statements or to the use of words not clearly understood by the 
pupils.) Does the teacher permit such statements to be passed by 
when made by the pupils? 

(f) 'Statements too general and abstract. — Does the teacher make 
general and abstract statements without concrete and definite illus- 
trations? Does she permit pupils to make such statements without 
requiring them to give examples? 

(g) Undue consumption of time by the teacher or by a few pupils. — 
Is the class kept mentally alert by all being called upon frequently 
to participate, or does the teacher consume a large amount of the 
time in talking? Does she permit pupils to make long recitations? 
Does she spend time in asking pupils "pumping questions," in trying 
to drag information out from them? Does she drill pupils singly, 
or the class as a whole? 

(h) Unskilful questioniftg. — ^Does the teacher tend to repeat her 
questions, or does she ask the question once, definitely, clearly, and 
so that it can easily be heard by all members of the class? If she 
repeats her questions, why does she do it? Does the teacher repeat 
the answers of the pupils? Why does she do this? 

(i) Summary of the two preceding periods of observation. — Assuming 
that the maximally efficient class is one that is mentally active dur- 
ing the entire recitation, each individual member being occupied on 
something that is distinctly worth while for the entire period, estimate 
the efficiency of the class or classes you have observed during the 
last two periods. Enumerate the greatest sources of waste as you 
have observed them. 

Observation. IV. Methods of instruction. — The lowest grade of 
teaching is "hearing a lesson." In fact this is not teaching in any real 
sense of the term. The hearing of a lesson is justified to a limited 
extent in that it gives the teacher knowledge of what the pupil knows 
and where his mistakes he. It is also justified to the extent that 
it serves as an incentive for the pupil to study. Few lessons should 
be devoted merely or largely to tests for knowledge. The next higher 
grade of teaching consists in intelligent and systematic drill. The 



4o8 APPENDIX B 

highest grade of teaching consists in developing the lesson through 
demonstration, illustration, explanation, and question and answer. 
The chief aim of the teacher should be to give new meanings and to 
establish facts, principles, and methods of procedure during the 
recitation period. In connection with methods of instruction the 
following should be particularly observed: — 

(a) Testing for knowledge. — ^What proportion of the lesson is de- 
voted to finding out what the pupil knows? What use does the 
teacher make of this test for knowledge? Does she use it chiefly for 
marking the pupil, or does she make it a basis for developing the 
lesson, bringing new knowledge to that which the pupil already pos- 
sesses? Does she further use the test intelligently to correct the 
pupils' errors? 

(b) Drilling for efficiency. — ^What proportion of the total recitation 
is devoted to drill? How is the drill conducted? Are pupils drilled 
one at a time, or is the drill directed toward the class as a whole? 
Note the kind of questions asked in a drill exercise. Are they "rapid 
fire questions," or are they deHberate and given with undue time for 
reply? Do the pupils seem interested in the drill, or is it monoto- 
nous and apparently disagreeable? 

(c) Developing the lesson. — How much time is spent by the teacher 
in adding to the pupils' knowledge of facts and principles? Describe 
the methods by which the teacher develops the lesson. Does she ask 
questions to lead the pupils to think? Does she give concrete ex- 
amples from which general facts may be arrived at? Does she tell 
the pupils much outright, or does she attempt to aid them in finding 
out facts through their own initiative? Does she make use of the 
blackboard in developing the new lesson? 

(d) Preparing for the lesson of tomorrow. — ^In assigning a lesson 
does the teacher attempt to clear up difficulties, and aid the pupils 
in their study of this lesson? How does she do this? Is there any 
attempt on the part of the teacher to show the pupils how to study? 

(e) Summary. — ^In the lesson that you have observed, how much 
actual teaching do you think the teacher has done? Does the teacher 
seem more interested in hearing lessons, or in helping the pupils to 
learn something new? 

Observation. V. Motivating the class work. — Most work that we do 



APPENDIX B 409 

until it becomes a matter of habit is not done for itself, but for spme 
purpose that lies outside of the work as such. This is a motive. The 
problem of securing an adequate motive for school activities is one 
of the most pressing and difficult of all questions that confront the 
teacher, jln so far as school activities appeal to an inborn tendency 
of the child, no motive outside of these tendencies is necessary. How- 
ever, most school activities demand an external motive for their 
performance. Among the most important motives are the desire for 
approval, and the fear of disapproval. High marks are one form of 
approval, while disapproval may take the form of reproof or definite 
punishment. The spirit of rivalry and the desire to beat one's previous 
record often furnish motives for work that in itself may be distaste- 
ful. Work is given a value when its relation to life is clearly shown, 
and particularly when it appeals to some vocational interest. Work 
is often done also in the spirit of cooperation with the class and with 
the teacher. A task is more cheerfully performed and better per- 
formed when it is something to be given to the class as a whole 
to advance the knowledge of the class and to aid its various members 
in learning. Observe the class with the purpose of discovering if any 
of these motives are operative. 

(a) Appealing to instinctive tendencies. — Does any of the work of 
the class appeal to such fundamental instincts as pleasure in manipu- 
lating objects, curiosity, interest in movement, particularly self- 
activity, the desire to make collections, the play-spirit, or joy in in- 
tellectual activity? 

(b) Motives based on reward and punishment. — Does the teacher 
emphasize marking in the recitation, or use other means to indicate 
her approval? Does she reprove for bad work, or tell pupils to re- 
main after school when they fail in their lessons? 

(c) Motives based on rivalry. — Does the teacher urge pupils to do 
better so that they may equal or surpass somebody else? Does she 
encourage them to beat their own previous achievements? In any 
other way does she appeal to the spirit of rivalry? 

(d) Appealing to community and vocational interests. — Does the 
teacher attempt to relate the school work in any way to that of the 
everyday life of the child, or does the material presented seem to 
be remote and apart from the vital interests of the child? Does 



4IO APPENDIX B 

the teacher in any way appeal to the vocational interests of the 
child? 

(e) Stimulating the cooperative interests of the pupil. — Does the 
teacher in any way attempt to make the class self-helpful? Are 
pupils given particular work to do and to report on to the class? Is 
a simple seminary method ever used? In reciting does the pupil 
merely recite for the teacher, or is there an attempt to recite to the 
class as a whole? Are the pupils encouraged to speak so that all of 
the class can hear, or is the "pupil-teacher" attitude the one assumed? 
Do pupils attempt to pay attention to those who are reciting, and 
are they encouraged to offer criticisms and suggestions? 

(f) Summary. — On the whole does the class impress you as alive 
and interested in the work of the period, or does it seem to be merely 
"going through the motions? " 

B. The High School 

In each of the five observations to be conducted in the high 
school note and report on the following items: — 

1. What are the specific aims of the lesson? 

2. What methods are employed to reahze these aims? 

3. What results seem to be attained? 

4. If there are any matters of discipline state specifically their 
nature, and the manner in which they are met. 

Observation. I. In addition to considering these specific points 
in each observation the first observation is to consider particularly 
the question of Attention and Interest, observing the following 
topics: — 

(a) Characterize in general the attention of the class. 

(b) What are the causes for lapses in attention? 

(c) What methods does the teacher use to secure attention? 

(d) What interests are appealed to that aid in securing and hold- 
ing attention? 

(e) Give instances of passive, active, and secondary passive at- 
tention. 

Observation. II. The second observation is to consider the ques- 
tion of Thinking under the following heads: — 



APPENDIX B 411 

(a) How large a part of the lesson is directed to developing thought, 
as distinguished from testing the memory and training through drill? 

(b) Give examples of inductive and deductive processes of thinking. 

(c) Give examples of instruction cast in the form of a problem. 
Observation. III. The third observation period is to give particular 

consideration to the devices for Illustration. An illustration is any- 
thing that presents in a simple and concrete manner a fact or prin- 
ciple that is general and abstract. It is the interpretation of the less 
well known in terms of the more familiar and better known. Illustra- 
tions may be objects, pictures of such objects, models, drawings, 
diagrams, maps, and graphic representations of various sorts. Illus- 
trations may likewise consist in specific examples of general principles. 
Further the teacher may lead the pupil to revive in imagination 
concrete experiences that give vitality to the oral or written words 
which may in themselves be meaningless symbols. In this period of 
observation observe particularly the following points: — 

(a) Does the teacher use in making the lesson clear any objects 
or representations of such objects? 

(b) Does the teacher use the blackboard to illustrate important 
and difficult points? 

(c) Does the teacher in stating a general principle always give 
concrete illustrations of this principle, and does he demand concrete 
illustration by the pupil? 

(d) Does the teacher attempt to appeal to the imagination of the 
pupil and lead him to see in his mind's eye that which is not physically 
present? 

Observation. IV. The fourth observation period is to emphasize 
Individual Aid in teaching. No teacher should teach a class en- 
tirely as a group. He must in a way consider the individual capaci- 
ties and needs of his pupils. As a rule individual needs should not 
be given chief attention during the recitation period. They should 
be treated outside of the regular class hour. In this connection ob- 
serve the following topics: — 

(a) Does the teacher correct the individual errors of the pupils, or 
does he call upon the class to correct such errors? 

(b) Does he attempt to drill a single pupil upon something that 
is of little value or interest to the class as a whole? 



412 APPENDIX B 

(c) Observe particularly in the work done by the pupil at the 
board whether the corrections made are for the sole benefit of the 
pupil making them, or whether these corrections are so made as to 
be of benefit to the class as a whole. 

(d) Does the teacher seem to have any method (through examining 
written work, or otherwise) of discovering the nature of pupils' errors? 
Does he attempt to follow up these errors and compel the pupils to 
correct them? 

Observation. V. The fifth observation period is to consider par- 
ticularly the Personality of the Teacher. The personality of the 
teacher is the chief factor in a good school or class. This personality 
is in part due to original nature, but is in no small measure a matter of 
experience and training. The following points should be observed: — 

(a) Does the teacher seem to be in control of the class at all times; 
does he see everything that is going on; does he instantly check any 
tendency toward disorder; does he seem confident and master of the 
situation? 

(b) Does he stand or sit when hearing the recitation; does he 
move about from time to time? 

(c) Does he pay attention to the whole class, or merely to the 
pupil that is reciting? 

(d) Has he a good voice, and does he speak clearly, with vivacity, 
but with due deliberation? 

(e) Does he seem at ease, or is he nervous; does he have any ob- 
jectionable automatisms or habits? 

(f) Is he sympathetic and genial, or is he formal and remote in 
his manner? 

(g) Does he ever give evidence of irritation; does he use sarcasm? 
(h) Does he seem to be a thorough master of his subject? 

(i) Is he apparently thoroughly interested in his teaching or does 
he do it as if it were a task? 

(j) Does he merely hear lessons, or does he possess instructional 
skill; does he really teach something? 

(k) Does he give a human touch to his subject; does he make it seem 
as if it were related to the everyday life of the pupil, or does it seem 
something remote, unreal, and formal? 

In making your observations in the high school, observe three 



APPENDIX B 413 

different subjects. Further observe one subject at least twice. In 
observing the work in foreign language and mathematics observe 
particularly the use of the blackboard. Observe whether the language 
teaching is largely synthetic and grammatical, or analytical and 
direct. The latter method uses grammar only as a means to an end, 
emphasizes conversational and "natural" methods. In your observa- 
tions in history notice particularly whether there is an attempt to 
relate the past to the present, and to find in the events of yesterday 
points of contact with the happenings of today. In your observa- 
tions in English distinguish carefully between the practical and the 
cultural aspects of the lesson. In your observation of science notice 
particularly whether the habit of thinking inductively is cultivated, 
or whether a large part of the work is merely testing for knowledge 
and emphasis of facts learned from books or lectures. In your ob- 
servations in geometry notice whether the instruction is largely 
formal or whether it stimulates the pupil to original thinking. 



APPENDIX C 

Suggested Form' of Lesson Plans 

The following lesson plans have been selected from a large 
number submitted by student-teachers as typical of plans of 
the better type. They are not examples of perfect plans, but of 
plans that may be expected from the most intelligent and in- 
dustrious students at the end of their senior year in college, or 
during their first graduate year. 

History 

A. Materials covered in the lesson. 

(a) Review. — We shall rapidly go over the causes and the 
incidents of the Boer War. (8 min.)- 

(b) Advance. — This will consider three of the most important 
facts in the reign of Edward VII., — the Imperial Federation, 
England's alliance with France and Russia, and the increase 
of England's naval strength. (12 min.). 

(c) Assignment. — This will deal with the significance of the 
facts brought out in the review and advance in relation to cur- 
rent events. (25 min.). 

B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 

(a) The aim. — The aim of the lesson is to connect the events 
in recent English history with the Great War; particu- 
larly to show the effect of Edward's colonial policy and his 
alliance with France and Russia, on the struggle. The lesson 
will culminate in the formulation of certain problems that the 
class are to consider and discuss at a later meeting. 

414 



APPENDIX C 415 

(b) Method. — I shall first ask certain review questions among 
which will be the following: 

Give me a brief statement of the most important events of 
the Boer War. 

Do' you think that Gladstone was right when he said that the 
conquest of the Transvaal would not be worth its cost? 

Some Englishmen believed that the war was chiefly for the 
benefit of South African mine owners. What does this suggest 
to you in regard to our present Mexican problem? 

Explain in what ways the Boers have been a source of strength 
or weakness to England in recent years. 

To conquer the Boers England sent into the field an army of 
two hundred and fifty thousand men. This was a voluntary 
army. Lord Roberts urged universal service for Englishmen. 
What is your opinion in regard to such service? 

In the foregoing review, I intend to emphasize the fact that 
the conquest of the Transvaal has had an important bearing on 
the course of events in South Africa since the beginning of the 
Great War, and to show that the Union of South Africa has 
been to the advantage of England. I shall also refer to the fact 
that England was not prepared for the Boer War, and that she 
did not for a long time comprehend the task that she had on her 
hands in conquering the Boers. However, when she made up 
her mind to go through with the struggle, she never wavered 
until she had accomplished her purpose. 

In considering the events in the reign of Edward VII., I shall 
aim to make it clear that the alliance between England, France, 
and Russia was possible notwithstanding the fact that for a 
long period England had regarded France as her traditional 
enemy, and that Russia and England had been on unfriendly 
terms for nearly two generations. I shall then ask, — "Was this 
alliance prompted primarily by feelings of friendship between 
the countries concerned, or was its chief aim political?" "If 
it was largely the result of public policy, what was that 



41 6 APPENDIX C 

policy?" "In what sense has it proved an entangling alli- 
ance?" 

I shall next consider Edward's successful efforts toward Im- 
perial Unity and ask the following questions, — "What has 
been England's policy toward her colonial possessions that has 
made this unity possible?" "What has been the value to Eng- 
land of this unity?" "If England had shown the same en- 
lightened policy toward America in the Colonial Period, that 
she has since shown toward her other possessions, would the 
course of history have been changed, and how?" 

In considering England's policy in regard to her navy, I shall 
ask, — "In 1910, the English Parliament put in its budget the 
sum of $90,000,000 for war ships. This money might have 
been used to great advantage for the development of industry, 
for education, etc. Was it wisely expended?" "Why has 
England considered a navy so essential to her welfare?" "Has 
she used this navy chiefly as a means of extending her power, 
or as a means of protection? " 

The remaining part of the lesson will be taken up with the 
assignment, the chief purpose of which will be to formulate 
certain thought questions to be considered in the preparation 
of the next recitation. 

Among the problems that I shall develop with the class are 
the following: — 

In dealing with the Boers England showed certain elements 
of weakness and of strength. What were these? 

How have the same characteristics of the English tempera- 
ment shown themselves during the last two years? 

In what respects are England's traits of character at all due 
to her democratic form of government? 

We also have a democratic government; are there any reasons 
why our experience may be like that of England? 

England attempted to safeguard her foreign relations by 
creating a "balance of power" in her favor through the forma- 



APPENDIX C 417 

tion of the Triple Entente. What did this balance of power cul- 
minate in? 

England desired peace. Can peace be secured by balancing 
groups of nations against one another? 

Is 'there any better way of securing peace and establishing it 
on a permanent basis? 

England believed in naval preparedness, but not in military 
preparedness. How might the advice of Lord Roberts have 
affected the Great War? 

Has America the same reasons for having a large navy that 
England has? Has America the same reasons for having a large 
army? 

Questions asked. — ^The large proportion of the questions asked 
during the course of the lesson will be of the thought type. 
Fact questions will be introduced merely as a preparation for 
the thought questions. 

Illustrations Used. — I shall use a map of South Africa in con- 
sidering the Boer War. A map of Europe, showing the British 
Isles, will be used in discussing England's need of a navy. Other 
illustrations will be of the nature of comparisons, and I shall 
use a number of these. 

(c) Results. — ^The lesson went well. The class gave excellent 
attention to most of the topics discussed, chiefly because they 
saw the significance and bearing of these topics on matters in 
which they are all greatly interested. I made the mistake in 
several instances of discussing points not directly connected 
with my main topics, and consequently the lesson lacked some- 
what in unity. I had some difficulty in keeping members of 
the class from talking when they were not addressed, and for 
this reason there was confusion at times. I asked too many 
questions for these to be adequately discussed in the course 
of the recitation. I asked too many "yes and no" ques- 
tions. 



4l8 APPENDIX C 

Physics 

A. Materials covered in the lesson. 

(a) Review. — I shall go over with the class the various facts 
previously discussed in regard to sound, namely, — that it ori- 
ginates in a vibrating body, that it is conducted through the 
atmosphere, and that it is in the form of longitudinal wave 
motion. What really travels through the air is a series of 
compressions, alternating with a series of rarefactions. (lo 
min.). 

(b) Advance. — ^Here we shall discuss the speed of sound, the 
graphic representation of sound, and the nature of the mano- 
metric flame. (17 min.). 

(c) Assignment. — I wish here to bring out the difference be- 
tween noise and tone, and two of the three features by which 
tones are distinguished from one another, namely, — loudness 
and pitch. I shall reserve the discussion of quality (fundamen- 
tals and overtones) for another lesson. (18 min.). 

B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 

(a) The aim. — The aim of this lesson is again to emphasize 
the physical facts relating to the cause of sound and its trans- 
mission; to draw a distinction between sound as a sensation and 
as a physical phenomeno7t; to frame with the class a definition 
of noise and tone, and of loudness and pitch. I shall treat these 
distinctions from two standpoints, — sensation and physical 
energy. These latter distinctions will lead up to subsequent 
laboratory experiments. 

(b) Method. — I shall first ask a number of fact questions con- 
cerning matters brought out in previous lessons. Typical ques- 
tions to be asked are as follows: — 

If you clamp in a vise a blade of a hack saw, what must you 
then do to cause it to give forth a sound? 

As long as the sound continues what will you notice about the 
hack saw? 



APPENDIX C 419 

Sound a tuning fork and notice that the edges look hazy. Why 
is this? 

What must we do to the strings of a mandolin in order that 
the instrument shall give forth a sound? 

What do the above facts show in regard to the cause of sound? 

The human voice is a good example of sound. Is the sound 
in this instance due to vibrations? (This last question calls for 
discussion and reflection; it has not been touched on in previous 
lessons.) 

How does sound travel from the source (a vibrating body) 
to the ear that hears it? 

What proofs have you that it travels through the air? 

Does it take time to travel? 

What proofs have you that it takes time, and can you meas- 
ure the time that it actually takes? 

The above questions will emphasize the facts that sound is 
always caused by a vibrating body, and that it travels through 
the air. I shall next attempt to demonstrate the fact that sound 
travels in the form of waves. To do this, I shall use Konig's 
device, the manometric flame. (The nature of the sound wave 
has been discussed in previous lessons, but has not as yet been 
demonstrated, for the simple reason that the apparatus was 
out of order at the time the topic was first considered.) 

I shall next draw on the board a graphic representation of 
sound waves and explain the construction of the graph. 

In the assignment for tomorrow, I shall attempt first to lead 
the class to distinguish between two kinds of sound, noise and 
tone, and to point out their essential differences first as sensa- 
tions, and then as physical phenomena. To do this I shall use 
the various resources of the laboratory to produce sounds (both 
tones and noises). I shall strike tuning forks, actuate strings, 
pound on the desk with a mallet, etc. By this means I hope to 
get a statement from the class that some of the sounds are 
musical and others are not. If I succeed in doing this, I shall 



420 APPENDIX C 

then ask such questions (requiring reflection and thought) as 
the following: — 

Give me a list of words (adjectives) that can be applied to 
tones; to noises. 

Are tones always pleasant? Are noises always unpleasant? 

Are there some sounds that are both tones and noises? 

I shall next attempt to make clear to the class that the dis- 
cussion of tone and noise which we have just had, considers 
sound as a sensation, not as a form of physical energy. I shall 
then ask what is the physical distinction between tone and noise, 
and shall again use the manometric flame with the purpose of 
showing that tone is due to a periodic motion, and that noise 
is due to a non-periodic motion. 

By striking the tuning fork with gentle and hard blows, I 
shall attempt to lead the class to distinguish between loud and 
soft tones. By striking various forks I shall attempt to develop 
the notion of pitch. I shall clamp a clock spring in a vise, 
hoping to bring out the fact that as it is shortened it vibrates 
more rapidly and gives out a higher note. I shall also attempt 
to show that a vibrating string sounds loud when its amplitude 
is great, and soft when its amplitude is slight. Finally, I hope 
to lead the class to the conclusion that loudness is due to ampli- 
tude of vibration, while pitch depends on rapidity of vibration 
(frequency). In the next lesson (a laboratory exercise), I shall 
attempt further to prove these conclusions through individual 
observation and experimentation. 

Questions asked. — ^At the beginning of the hour the questions 
will be principally of the knowledge and the drill types; the ma- 
jority of the questions will, however, be of the thought type. I 
shall aim to demonstrate and develop rather than to tell. 

Illustrations used. — I shall use numerous demonstrations as 
outlined above. In addition, in discussing the rate at which 
sound travels, I shall tell the class about the explosion at Kra- 
katoa in August, 1883, the effects of which were recorded at 



APPENDIX C 421 

various points on the earth's surface. I shall illustrate compres- 
sions and rarefactions of the air by Mach's photograph of the 
stationary waves which accompany the flight of a Mauser rifle 
ball. ' I shall also refer to the effect of the explosion of ammu- 
nition in New York harbor in 1916. Glass windows were broken 
as far uptown as Times Square. 

(c) Results. — I attempted to cover too much in the hour. 
Some of the things I tried to do were too difficult for the class to 
comprehend, particularly the graphic representation of sound 
waves. This part of the lesson was a distinct failure. Some 
of my demonstrations did not come out well, particularly those 
connected with the manometric flame. Few of the class could 
see just what took place. I shall use this demonstration again 
as a laboratory exercise. The interest was on the whole well 
sustained. Some of the thought questions worked out satisfac- 
torily. However, I was forced to tell a good deal that I had 
hoped to develop. On the whole I should say that the lesson 
was fairly successful. Much must be gone over again in review. 

Geometry 

A. Materials covered in the lesson. 

(a) Review. — We will here consider the facts already dis- 
cussed in regard to the properties of triangles, particularly those 
theorems in the text in regard to equal triangles. (5 min.). 

(b) Advance. — Here we will take up the proof of the following 
theorems: 

I. The sirni of the angles of any triangle is equal to two right 
angles. 

H. Two right triangles are equal when the hypothenuse and 
leg of one are equal respectively to the hypothenuse and leg of 
the other. (20 min.). 

(c) Assignment. — In this part of the lesson the following 
theorems will be developed and stated: 

I. If two triangles have two sides of one equal respectively to 



422 APPENDIX C 

two sides of the other, but the included angle of the first greater 
than the included angle of the second, the third side of the first 
is greater than the third side of the second. 
II. The converse of this proposition. (20 min.). 

B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 

(a) The aim. — The aim of this lesson is, first, to recall to the 
minds of the class the fact that triangles are equal when certain 
conditions are realized in regard to their sides and the angles, 
and second, to work out with the class the statement of two 
theorems in regard to triangles that have two sides equal, but 
the third side unequal, and also the included angles unequal. 
The first part of the lesson is largely in preparation for the second 
part, and it includes both the review of the work done during 
the last few days and a consideration of the work prepared for 
the lesson of today. 

(b) Method. — ^The lesson will begin with a written test of the. 
propositions assigned for today's advance work. During the 
test, I shall inspect the work of individual pupils, and discover 
by this means how well they understand the theorems which 
they are attempting to prove. At the conclusion of this test, 
I shall ask the following questions: 

How many right angles can a triangle have? 

How many obtuse angles? 

What is the sum of the acute angles of a right triangle equal 
to? 

What can you say about a right triangle whose two legs 
are equal respectively to the two legs of another right tri- 
angle? 

In obtaining the answers for these questions, I shall ask for 
the reasons involved. I shall then proceed to discuss the proper- 
ties of equal triangles, not right triangles, as these have been 
considered in previous lessons. First, I shall draw on the board 
two triangles thus: 



APPENDIX C 423 




I plan to make subsequent questions and answers substan- 
tially as follows: — 

Teacher. How do these two triangles look to you? 

Pupil. They look equal. 

T. If they are equal, what do you know is true about them? 

At this point I hope to obtain the following answers: — 

P I. They have three sides respectively equal. 
P 2. They have a side and two adjacent angles equal each to each. 
P 3. They have two sides and the included angle of one equal re- 
spectively to the two sides and included angle of the other. 

I shall then continue somewhat as follows : — 

T. Name two sides of one triangle, and two sides of the other. 

P. AB and AC of the first, and xy and xz of the second. 

T. Name the included angles. 

P. The angle at A, and the angle at x. 

T. Let us measure these sides and these angles. (Teacher measures 
with rule and protractor.) Yes, I find side AB is just the same length 
as side xy, and that AC and xz are also equal. The angles at A and 
at x are both forty-two degrees. Now according to a previous prop- 
osition, what can we say about these two triangles? 

P. They are equal. 

T. Then if I should take one triangle and put it on the other, what 
would happen? 

P. One triangle would exactly cover the other. They would be 
the same. 

T. Now from the point A, I am going to draw a dotted line AC 
just as long as AC, and so that the line AC falls outside of the tri- 



424 APPENDIX C 

angle ABC. . . . Then I am going to draw another dotted line join- 
ing the points B and C. Now look at the triangle ABC, and com- 
pare it with triangle xyz. What can you say? 

P. ABC is not equal to xyz. 

T. How about the sides AB and xy? 

P. They are equal. 

T. And the sides AC and xz? 

P. They are equal also. 

T. But how about the angle BAC and the angle yxz? 

P. The angle BAC is greater than the angle yxz. 

T (measuring) : Yes, it is sixty-three degrees. Now how about the 
side BC as compared with the side yz? 

P. BC is greater than yz. 

T (measuring) : Yes, it is quite a little longer. Now can you state 
a proposition concerning the relation of the triangle ABC and the 
triangle xyz? What do you know about these two triangles? 

P. Two sides are equal. 

T. Anything else? 

P. Yes, the included angles are not equal. 

T. Anything else? Anything about the equality of the two tri- 
angles? 

P. The triangles are not equal. 

T. Can you state this fact in the form of a proposition? 

P (after further discussion): When two triangles have two sides 
equal, but the included angle of one greater than the included angle 
of the other, then the two triangles are not equal. 

T. Anything else? How about the sides BC and yz? 

P. They are not equal. 

T. Anything else that you can say? 

P. BC is greater than yz. 

T. That is right. Anything else? Where are the sides in relation 
to the angles BAC and yxz? 

P. They are opposite these angles. 

T. And which side is greater? 

P. SideBC. 

T. And which angle is greater? 

P. Angle BAC. 



APPENDIX C 425 

T. Now let us have the entire proposition. We have already said 
that when two triangles have two sides of the one equal respectively 
to the two sides of the other, but the included angles unequal, then 
the two triangles are unequal. Now what can we say about the rela- 
tion of the sides opposite the included angles? 

P. The sides are unequal. 

T. And the greater side . . . ? 

P. Lies opposite the greater angle. 

T. There you have the entire proposition. You have seen that 
it is true, but for tomorrow's lesson, I wish you to prove in logical 
form that it is true. 

By further questioning I hope to develop the converse of this 
proposition, namely — If two triangles have two sides of one 
equal respectively to two sides of the other, but the third side 
of the first greater than the third side of the second, the included 
angle of the first is greater than the included angle of the second. 
In conclusion, I shall suggest steps by which these two theorems 
may be demonstrated, but I shall leave the details to be worked 
out by the pupils. 

Illustrations used. — Besides illustrating the work by the 
method of drawing figures on the board, I shall attempt to 
make these theorems more definite and concrete by calling the 
attention of the class to the fact that Providence, Boston, and 
Worcester are practically each forty-four miles apart; that 
W' esterly is also the same distance from Providence, but about 
twice as far from Boston. I shall ask what facts follow from 
this in terms of our day's lesson. 

(c) Results. — I carried out the lesson practically as planned. 
The \\Titten test w^as completed by all but four of the class in 
the time allowed for it (18 min.). I found some difficulty in 
developing a statement of the two theorems for tomorrow, but 
I finally obtained the desired answers, though I am afraid that 
over half of the class did not follow me completely. There was 
a good deal of interest in the illustration based on the situation 



426 APPENDIX C 

of Providence, Boston, Worcester and Westerly, and several 
thoughtful questions were asked. 

English 

A. Materials covered in the lesson. 

(a) Review. — I shall take up portions of Washington Irving's 
three sketches relating to Christmas {Christmas Eve, Christmas 
Day, and the Christmas Dinner), emphasizing details not suf- 
ficiently brought out in previous lessons. (lo min.). 

(b) Advance. — I shall read with the class the sketch. The 
Widow and Eer Son. (15 min.). 

(c) Assignment. — This will be the sketch, A Royal Poet. It 
will occupy about half of the entire period. (20 min.). 

B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 

(a) The aim. — My main aim in this lesson is to impress on 
the class certain elements in literary appreciation. In par- 
ticular I shall attempt to bring out the "feeling tone" of the 
sketches taken up in the review and the advance. I hope to 
make the pupils realize to some extent the sparkle, the mirth, 
the humor, the sense of bodily comfort that make the "atmos- 
phere" of the Christmas sketches, and on the other hand the 
gloom, the poverty, the misfortune, and the hopeless misery 
that cast their pall over the story of the Widow and her Son, 
In the assignment, too, the aim will be in part to make the class 
feel with the author. Here I shall attempt to direct the thoughts 
of the pupils to those elements that show Irving's art in writing 
his moods into the description. I shall further attempt to aid 
the class in understanding Irving's conception of the poetic 
imagination, and impress upon them his portrayal of the refined 
and gracious character of James I., 

(b) Method. — In the review, I shall read to the class certain 
selected passages from the Christmas stories, for example, — 
"It was a brilliant moonlit night," etc. "The postboy rang 



APPENDIX C 427 

a large porter's bell, which resounded through the still frosty 
air," etc., (to impress the "Christmas feeling"); descriptions 
of Master Simon, the dance, the orchestra in the church (for 
the jollity and humor) ; the description of the Christmas dinner 
(to convey the sense of well-being and creature-comfort). In 
this way I hope to get the necessary background for the con- 
trasting mood of the sketch taken up in the advance. 

I shall read as much as possible of this with the class, and I 
shall ask such questions as the following: 

Name some of the words that Irving uses to make us feel the 
quiet of an English Sabbath. 

How does the spirit of the day contrast with that of Christmas? 

What are the feelings that you have when you read this 
description? 

What new feelings do you have when the old woman is de- 
scribed? 

Can you imagine the tolling of the bell? 

Is it a pleasant sound to you? 

You pity the poor woman; what feelings have you for the well- 
fed priest? 

Why did he treat the old woman with such indifference? 

How does Irving feel toward the poor? Toward the rich? 

Contrast the feeling that you have when you finish this story, 
with your feelings on ending the Christmas stories. 

If you had been writing the story of the widow would you 
have ended it differently? Why? 

Do you think that the great writers end all of their stories 
happily? 

Why is it undesirable always to have a happy ending? 

How about the endings of Shakespeare's plays? of Dickens' 
novels, etc.? 

In the assignment I shall give a brief sketch of the life of 
James I., as a preparation for the reading of the sketch. I shall 
next explain the meanings of some of the difficult words and 



428 APPENDIX C 

passages. I shall then ask the class to keep in mind such ques- 
tions as the following in their reading of the sketch: — 

In what mood did Irving write this sketch? 

Select five adjectives that indicate this mood; select five ad- 
jectives from the Christmas stories that give the mood of the 
author when he wrote these sketches; in a similar way select 
five adjectives that indicate Irving's feelings when he wrote the 
story of the widow. 

When an artist wishes to make us know his feelings in his 
paintings how does he do it? 

When a writer wishes to convey to us his feelings how does 
he do it? 

What does the term word-artist mean to you? 

According to Irving, what are some of the things essential to 
the imagination of a poet? 

How was it possible for James imprisoned still to live in the 
world outside? 

How can you live at the present moment in a world outside 
of the classroom? 

In what sense was the imprisonment of James an aid to his 
fancy? 

Is there anything in the character of James while in prison 
that would indicate what he would be when released? 

In what mood does Irving end the sketch? Has he impressed 
you at all with this mood? 

Explain this statement, — The great writer is he who makes 
his readers see as he sees, and feel as he feels. 

Would you call Irving a great writer? Why? 

Questions asked. — I shall ask practically no questions of the 
drill or informational type. Some will be thought questions 
of the intellectual type, but the great majority will be questions 
of appreciation. 

Illustrations used. — I shall ask the class to recall in imagina- 
tion Christmas scenes similar to those described by Irving. I 



APPENDIX C 429 

shall ask them to picture in their mind's eye some poor and 
feeble woman that they have seen; some eccentric character 
they have known, etc. 

In attempting to bring out the fact that the writer puts his 
own feelings into his work through "word painting," I shall 
make a comparison between a photograph and a painting, with 
the purpose of showing that the painter creates the scene and 
does not copy it as it exists in nature. He colors it to suit his 
thoughts and moods. 

(c) Results. — I am not stire but that I aimed too high in 
this lesson. I think that about half of the class got some real 
appreciation of Irving as an artist, but I am sure that what I 
said was above the heads of a good many in the class. It would 
have been much easier for me to have taught the lesson merely 
as a collection of incidents and facts; to have impressed upon the 
class the story, and have been contented with that. However, 
I cannot feel that I should have been teaching literature if I 
had done this and nothing more. I have the satisfaction of 
knowing that some of the class at least, obtained an insight into 
Irving's art. 

Latin 

A. Materials covered in the lesson. 

(a) Review. — The review lesson considered the declension of 
the irregular adjectives alius, alter, neuter, nullus, solus, totus, 
ullus, unus, uter, uterque, ending in ius in the genitive singular 
and i in the dative singular of all genders; in addition to the 
declension of the adjectives, the lesson included their use in 
such idioms as: alter — alter = the one — the other, alius — 
alius = one — another, etc. There are also a Latin-English 
exercise and three sentences to be translated from English into 
Latin. (10-12 min.). 

(b) Advance. — The advance lesson takes up the infinitives, 
present, perfect and future, active and passive, of verbs of all 



430 APPENDIX C 

four conjugations, with their meanings and their use in sen- 
tences, as subject or as complementary infinitives; the use of 
the accusative case as subject of an infinitive is also illustrated 
in the lesson. The lesson also includes a reading lesson, a 
vocabulary exercise, and a Latin-English exercise. (18-20 
min.). 

(c) Assignment. — For the next lesson we shall take up in- 
direct statements and the manner of expressing them in Latin, 
by the infinitive with subject accusative; we shall also consider 
the use of the various tenses of infinitive, present, perfect, and 
future, to express time relative to that of the main verb. The 
advance lesson also includes three English-Latin sentences, a 
vocabulary and a Latin-English exercise. (10-14 min.). 

B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 

(a) The aim. — In this lesson, I shall aim to familiarize the 
pupils with the declension and use of the irregular adjectives 
previously mentioned, and with the various infinitives, active 
and passive, with their meanings and use in sentences. In the 
assignment, I shall try to give the pupils an understanding of 
what indirect statements are, and how they are expressed in 
Latin. 

(b) Method. — ^At the beginning of the period, we shall have a 
short test, covering the advance and review lessons; the questions 
will be somewhat as follows; — (i) Decline solus-a-um. (2) Give 
the six infinitives of rego. (3) Translation of a Latin sentence. 
(4) Translation of an English sentence. 

After the test, I shall drill the pupils on the vocabulary, using 
perception cards, on which are printed the various words (in 
the vocabulary). In the work on vocabulary, the card is pre- 
sented to the class as a whole; after a pause of a few seconds, an 
individual pupil is called upon; he pronounces the word, gives 
the English meaning, and, in the case of nouns, proceeds to 
give the genitive case and the gender; as, for example: — Peri- 



APPENDIX C 431 

culum, danger; periculum, -i, 11. In the case of verbs, the pupil 
gives the meaning and then the principal parts. 

In the review work, I shall call for the declension of one or 
two of the irregular adjectives. In taking up the infinitives, 
I shall call for the infinitives of various verbs with their mean- 
ings, and I shall have pupils write the infinitives of other verbs 
on the blackboard. I shall also take up the translation of ori- 
ginal sentences containing infinitives, working out the transla- 
tion with the class, and writing the sentences on the front board 
as they are developed. Examples of sentences follow: — "The 
soldiers wish to be brave and bold." "The general is said to 
have been captured." "The king wishes the citizens to be 
faithful." In taking up the English-Latin sentences, which are 
review work, I shall have individual pupils write the translation 
on the board, with suggestions and corrections from the class, 
or if time does not permit, I shall write the sentences working 
with the class. 

In connection with the translation of the Latin-English exer- 
cises, I shall read each sentence in Latin, aiming to read in such 
a way as to bring out the sense of the sentence; after a pause, to 
allow pupils time for thought, I shall call upon a particular 
pupil to translate. If there is a mistake in the translation, I 
shall first mention the word incorrectly translated, in order to 
focus the attention of the pupil on the word before asking any 
questions; then I shall ask for the case of the word, the manner 
of translating such a case, etc., in order to make the pupil see 
his mistake and correct his translation. I shall also ask for other 
constructions, even though correctly translated, to bring out 
important points of syntax. 

After all this comes the assignment, which, as was said be- 
fore, has to do with indirect statements. I shall proceed some- 
what as follows: — I shall ask the class to recall our definition 
of indirect questions. I shall ask such questions as the follow- 
ing: — Give an example of a direct question. — What are you 



432 APPENDIX C 

doing? Make that an indirect question. — He asks what you 
are doing. From this, define an indirect question. Now, in- 
stead of questions, let us consider statements. Give an example 
of a direct statement. — You are reading. An indirect state- 
ment; He says that you are reading. Now, define an indirect 
statement. We shall now proceed to the manner of expressing 
such statements. I shall take the example of the direct state- 
ment given: — ^You are reading, and the indirect statement: 
Dicit te legere, pointing out the changes that take place: namely, 
the verb of the direct statement becomes the infinitive, and 
the subject of the verb becomes the accusative, the subject of 
the infinitive; I shall also point out the literal translation of the 
sentence: He says you to write; and hence, he says that you 
write. I shall now ask the class to formulate a rule regarding 
the translation of indirect statements. I shall now turn to the 
expression of time, present, past, or future, in relation to the 
main verb. I shall use the example in the book, (i) He says 
he is writing; literal: — He says himself to write; expressed by 
the present infinitive — same time as that of main verb. (2) He 
says he has written; literal: He says himself to have written — 
expressed by perfect infinitive — time before that of the main 
verb. (3) He says he will write; literal: He says himself to be 
about to write; future infinitive — time after that of the main verb. 

If there is any time left, I shall take simple indirect state- 
ments, and have the class give the literal English order first, 
and then translate them into Latin. In this way, I shall at- 
tempt to give pupils an understanding of indirect statements 
and their translation into Latin. 

(c) Results. — I succeeded in covering the entire lesson, as 
planned, with the exception of a part of the assignment. I was 
obliged to hurry somewhat at the end. I should have cut down 
by a few minutes the time set aside for the review and advance, 
or have given the assignment earlier in the lesson. Both the 
review and advance went well today. I find that the class is 



APPENDIX C 433 

improving both in interest and accomplishment. There are 
three- or four pupils, however, who are failing far too often. 
These I am keeping after school and giving them individual 
instruction. 

English 

LESSON IN ENGLISH GRAMMAbV 

A. Materials covered in the lesson. 

(a) Review. — The review consists of a test on a grammar 
exercise written in class under supervision and corrected orally 
in class, embodying the use of active and passive in various 
tenses, and of an oral drill on the passive conjugation. (lo min.) 

(b) Advance. — The advance will take up the subject of par- 
ticiples and participial phrases. As this is a new topic not pre- 
pared by the class, it is in the nature of an assignment. (20 min.) 

(c) Assignment. — The assignment will consist of a test on the 
work in participles as taken up in the advance, based on the 
section in the grammar, and of ten words for spelling and ten 
pages in the Odyssey. The pupils understand that they will 
be tested for the story of what they read in the Odyssey. Some 
of the difficulties in the spelling words will be pointed out and 
explained. (15 min.) 

B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 

(a) Aim. — The aim of this lesson is to give a thorough intro- 
duction to the subject of participles, showing their use in the 
sentence, and avoiding confusion with the infinitive (which in 
the book is put in the same lesson). The more ultimate aim is 
the improvement of composition work for which this technical 
knowledge is necessary. 

(b) Method. — After the test on the review, I shall go over the 
review of the passive conjugation orally to form a transition to 
the new work and remind pupils of the method of forming tenses. 

I shall then ask them to open the grammars to the lesson on 
participles given there, — that it is partly a verb, having tense 



434 APPENDIX C 

and voice, and partly either noun or adjective according to its 
use in the sentence. 

I shall then go over with them the paradigm, calling its pe- 
culiarities to their attention by asking, for instance, what tense 
and voice of the participle has a progressive form. 

Then I shall ask the class to form, with the paradigm as a 
model, the various participles of other verbs, calling for a cer- 
tain form and then calling on a pupil for the answer. As for 
instance, "What is the present active participle of the verb 
take? The passive perfect? The present perfect progressive? 
What is the perfect passive participle of sing? " etc. I shall skip 
around in the tenses, and shall also go through all the tenses in 
order with the same verb to form a sort of synopsis. 

Before the class comes in, I shall write on the blackboard ten 
sentences illustrating participles and participial phrases. At 
the proper place in the lesson I shall turn to these, and reading 
a sentence aloud, ask the class what participle there is in it and 
what tense and voice this form is. In this way there is practice 
both in forming and in recognizing the various tenses. I shall 
also read aloud sentences illustrating the different tenses of the 
participle, as, — "Having been walking all day, they were tired." 
"He did not like being taken for an actor." 

I shall then proceed to the next part of the subject, the use 
of the participle in the sentence. Here I shall refer again to our 
definition, showing how we have been working on the verbal side 
of the participle, its tense and voice, and are now to look at it 
as an adjective or noun. 

I shall read the examples of the two uses given in the book 
and ask the pupils to see why the phrase is noun or adjective, 
as, — "Seeing your difficulty, I will help you." What does 
seeing modify? (Answer, I.) That is why it is called adjective, 
it modifies the pronoun. "Playing tennis is good exercise." 
Why is playing a noun? What part of the sentence is it? (An- 
swer, subject.) Then I can explain that the participle is a 



V APPENDIX C 435 

noun or gerund if it is used in the way a noun would be used, as 
subject or object. 

I shall then take up the sentences on the board and oral sen- 
tences and ask the pupils to tell what kind of phrases the par- 
ticipial phrases are, always demanding reasons for their answers. 
"He did not like being taken for an actor." (Answer, gerund.) 
Why? Because it is the direct object of "like." The sentences 
chosen illustrated as many uses as possible of the noun clause, 
i. e., — as subject, object, appositive, and object of a preposition. 

As a form of application, I shall take up the changing of 
clauses into participial phrases in an exercise in the book, con- 
sidering also which form of expression is preferable in the sen- 
tences. 

I shall then assign a test on forming and distinguishing the 
participles and phrases. 

(c) Results. — The interest and attention of the class were very 
good. The test next day showed ability on the part of the class 
in identifying forms but not in forming the tenses and voices 
themselves. 

A later lesson was utilized to bring out the practical uses of 
this work in the composition work. The class were led to work 
out inductively the construction of the participial phrase in the 
sentence, and then to correct the errors made in their composi- 
tions in its use. Their work was much better for the drill which 
we had had in the grammatical side of the work. 

German 

a lesson taught by a combination of direct and grammar 
methods, the so-called reform method 

A. Materials covered in the lesson. 

(a) Review. — Such as may arise in developing the new sub- 
ject of relative pronouns, as for instance the declensions of the 
different kinds of pronouns already studied. (5-10 min.) 



436 APPENDIX C 

(b) Advance. — ^The assignment yesterday consisted of read- 
ing and explaining an interesting account of Wintersport in 
Germany. The class was then assigned to write in German an 
account of the Wintersport which each one of them had partici- 
pated in. The papers will be collected and marked according 
to grammar and originaHty. (All the time necessary will be 
used to develop the subject of relative pronouns with the many 
different uses.) (10-15 min.) 

(c) Assignment. — The assignment will consist entirely of the 
development of the subject of relative pronouns. The ordinary 
relative pronouns der and welch will be considered first. Then 
the uses of wer and was, as relative pronouns, if they can be 
translated as he who, whoever, and that which, whatever. The dif- 
ferent paradigms illustrating these relative pronouns will be 
put on the board and the class will enter these into their note- 
books. A sentence-paradigm illustrating the use of the relative 
pronoun das will be put on the board and also assigned. With 
this as a model the class is to prepare the masculine and feminine 
relative pronouns in sentence-paradigms. (20-30 min.) 

B. Outline of the lesson in detail. 

(a) Aim. — The aim of this lesson is to present to the class the 
subject of relative pronouns. 

(b) Method. — The method of procedure is on the whole one 
which develops from what the class already know about pro- 
nouns in German and from what they know about relative pro- 
nouns in English grammar. (The subject of relative pronouns 
and their uses has always been one of great difficulty. In com- 
mon, everyday speech, who and whom are constantly being 
interchanged. Who did you see? instead of whom did you see? 
If a sharp distinction is drawn between the uses of the relative 
pronouns in English grammar at once, some of the difficulty 
which will be met with in the German uses of the relative pro- 
nouns will be overcome.) 



APPENDIX C 437 

In developing the subject, I ask first questions dealing with 
review subjects: 

Was fiir Furworter haben wir schon bis jetzt studiert? die 
personlichen Furworter, die unpersonlichen Furworter, die 
Frage-Fiirworter, die unbestimmten Furworter, die Besitz- 
Fiirworter, und die hinweisenden Furworter. These are put on 
the board with examples. 

Questions asked: Was bleibt noch iibrig in dem Subject der 
Furworter? (die Relativen.) 

Was sind diese auf Englisch? (who, whose, whom, which, etc.). 

(Dann werden Beispiele auf Englisch verlangt. Der grosze 
Unterschied zwischen who und whom, wo gewohnlich so viele 
Fehler gefunden werden, wird klar auseinander gesetzt. Dann 
fange ich sofort mit dem Deutschen, in Konversation an.) 

Wie heiszt der Knabe, der vor mir sitzt? 

Wer ist der Knabe, dessen Buch ich nehme? 

Wie heiszt der Knabe, neben dem er sitzt? 

Was gebe ich dem Knaben, den ich sehe? 

Was lesen die Knaben, die hier sind? 

Wie heiszen die Knaben, der en Biicher ich nehme? 

Lesen die Knaben mit denen ich spreche, Deutsch? 

Was sprechen die Knaben, die ich sehe? 

Dasselbe wird nun mit einem weiblichen Hauptwort getan, — 
die Dame, zum Beispie, and auch mit einem sachlichen Haupt- 
wort, das Buch. Dann schreibe ich die Deklination an die 
Tafel: 



der 


die 


das 


die 


dessen 


deren 


dessen 


deren 


dera 


der 


dem 


denen 


den 


die 


das 


die 



An der Tafel unter einer Karte steht schon geschrieben, die 
Deklination von dem relativen Flirwort das in Satzen. 
^ Das buch, das auf dem Tische liegt, ist das meinige. 



438 APPENDIX C 

Das Buch, dessen Bilder schon sind, ist ein Deutsches. 

Das Buch, in dem (worin) so viele Bilder sind, ist blau. 

Das Buch, das ich in der Hand habe, ist nicht das meinige. 

Die Biicher, die auf dem Tische liegen, sind grosz. 

Die Biicher, deren Schrift Deutsch ist, sind interessant. 

Die Biicher, in dem (worin) wir Geschichten lesen, sind schwer. 

Die Biicher, die wir kaufen, kosten viel Geld. 

Die Klasse soil fiir das nachste Mai solche Satzen schreiben 
und dabei ein mannliches und ein weibliches Hauptwort ge- 
brauchen. 

Dann erklare ich, dass welch auch ein relatives Furwort ist, 
und wird wie das Frage-Fiirwort dekliniert mit Ausnahme des 
Genitivs, der derselbe ist wie bei- der, die, das. Welch wird 
auch wie ein Adjectiv benutzt. Die Deklination des welch wird 
auf die Tafel geschrieben. 

Wer und was benutzt als relative Furworter werden jetzt 
durch Beispiele erklart. Die Deklination ist dieselbe wie die 
der Frage-Fiirworter. 

Unter einer anderen Karte steht folgendes geschrieben: 

1. The ordinary relative pronoims are der and welch; who, 
which and what. 

2. Wer and was are used as compound or indefinite relatives; 
he who, whoever; that which, whatever. 

3. Was is used instead of das after any neuter pronoun or 
adjective taken in a general sense: nicht alles, was glanzt, ist 
Gold. 

4. In relative clauses the inflected verb comes last. 

5. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender 
and number, but not necessarily in case. 

6. Either relative may refer to a person or a thing. 

7. Welch is used as an adjective. 

8. The relative clause is separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by conmias. Diese Regeln werden in die Hefte ge- 
schrieben. 



APPENDIX C 439 

(c) Results. — The introduction by way of review of kinds of 
pronouns and of English relatives was worth while and went 
well. It gave the boys a foundation, something they could rely 
upon as reference. It made the subject of German relative pro- 
nouns clearer and more easily understood. Evidently my ques- 
tions in developing the paradigm of defy die, das were very clear 
and always understood, for responses came readily and quickly. 
The boys seem to be alert and ready to enter into the grammar 
"game" we seemed to be playing. Interest and attention were 
excellent. 



INDEX OF AUTHORS 

(See addditional list of names in bibliography) 



Adams, J., 262, 267, 269 
Bagley, W. C, 53 (note), 60 (note), 
61, 102, no, 178, 235, 304, 306, 

307, 329 
Bird, G. E., 55 
Book, W. F., 55, 179 
Boyce, A. C, 52, 53 
Briggs, T. H., 8 (note) 
Brown, H. A., 5 (note) 
Brown, J. S., 364, 371 
Brown, R. M., 268 
Bryan, W. L., 179 
Buellesfield, H., 54, 55 
Clapp, F. L., 53 
Coffman, L. D,, 51 
Comenius, J. A., 250 
Cornman, O. P., 177 
Courtis, S. A., 177 
Dummer, R. O., 263 
Eliot, C. W., 18 (note), 253 
Farrington, F. E., 43 (note) 
Flexner, A., 18 (note) 
Hill, L. B., 179 
Hillegas, M. B., 160, 161 
Hall, G. S., 115 
Harter, N., 179 
James, W., 188, 246 
Judd, C. H., 25s, 269, 272, 285 
Mann, C. R., 318 



McMurry, F. and C., 237, 275, 

299 
Merriam, J. L., 370 
Minnick, J. H., 364 
Montessori, M., 121, 198, 252 
Moore, E. C., 318, 319 
Moses, Cleda, 54 
Miinsterberg, H., 115 
Parker, S. C, 236, 287, 288 
Pestalozzi, J. H., 250, 253 
Ramsay, W., 262 
Rejall, A. E., 179 
Rice, J. M., 177 
Rousseau, J. J., 106, 115, 250 
Smith, D. E., 270 
Snedden, D., 164, 165 
Spencer, Herbert, 106, 318 
Stevens, R., 225, 237, 316, 317, 319, 

320, 322, 323, 325, 328, 331, 332 
Strayer, G. D., ^^ 
Swift, E. J., 179 
Thorndike, E. L., 37, 48 (note), 50, 

51, 73, 179 and note, 180, 181, 183, 

184, 187, 191, 200, 236, 291, 296 
Van Denberg, J. K., 36, 37 
Veblen, T., 73 
Watson, J., 179, 184 
Wiener, W., 364, 370 
Yerkes, R. M., 179 



441 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 

Ability of high school pupils, 38; individual differences in, 363, 364 

Adolescence, characteristics of, 22-36 

Adolescent interest in philosophy, 78 

Advance lesson, the, 334, 335 

Esthetic interest, 35 

Agricultural courses, 10 

Aid of pupils, unwise, 363 

Aims, of the American secondary school, 5, 6; of instruction, 335-351; ex- 
amples of, in lesson plans, 414, 418, 422, 426, 430, 433, 436; too compre- 
hensive, 346; formal, 346; too many, 348; lack of coherence in, 349; repeti- 
tion of, 347; nature of immediate, 340-342; faults in the statement of 
immediate, 344-351; vague, 344, 345; confused with methods, 349-351; 
should be known to the pupil, 296,-376; function of ultimate, 336, Z2>7' 
(See also Objectives.) 

Alertness of class, 64-68 

Analysis, methods of, 297 

Answers, repetition of, 332 

Appeal to parents, 125 

Application the final step in thinking, 298 

Appreciation, 35, 71, 103, 164, 165, 176, 231, 245, 246, 262, 291, 306, 311, 341, 
343, 344, 358, 361, 426, 428, 429 

Appreciative judgment, 293 

Assignment, the, 141, 227, 228, 242, 284, 329, 335, 371, 376, 377, 408; essen- 
tials of, 235-241; il lustr ations of, 417, 419, 422, 425-433, 436 

Attention, devices for stimulating"an^ holdmgtEe7^2-69; in learning, 185, 
186, 197; in thinking, 283; methods of securing, 403 

Attitude, of the pupil, 145-149, 185, 234, 337, 344, 376, 399, 400, 410; of the 
teacher, 234, 396-398, 402, 406 

Blackboard, the, 62, 130, 132-137, 167, 168, 169, 194, 356, 406, 408, 411, 413, 

423, 434, 435, 437, 438 
Brown University, 48, 74, 160, 187, 203 

Careless pupil, the, 90 
Chicago, University of, 47 

442 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 443 

Child-study movement, the, 115 

Circular activity, 183 

Class, disturbance, 118, 119; experiment, 257 

Class-foremen, 104, 132 

Clay modeling, 74 

Collateral reading, 380 

Comments of teachers, 64, 224-226, 406 

Communal Colleges of France, 2, 42, 233 

Concept-building, 280 

Conceptual process, the, 288, 290 

Conservatism in secondary education, 18 

Consistency in learning, 188-190 

Continuation courses, 15 

Conversation method, the, of instruction, 316 

Cooperative class, the, 28, 29, 98, 99, 120, 137, 148, 149, 220, 286, 333, 381, 

409,410 
Copy, essential characteristics of the, 193-195 
Corporal punishment, 116 
Courses of study in the high school, 8-15 
Courtis tests, the, 158 

Cultural education, 8, 31, 34, 138, 213; values, 338-340 
Curiosity, $21 of anticipating results, 307 
Curricula of secondary schools, 3 

Deductive development lesson, in high school teaching, 302-308; the two 

functions of, 307 
Demonstrations, 68, 194, 252, 256, 257, 260, 263, 264, 272 
Developing the lesson, 137, 408 
Diagrams, the purpose of, 246 
Dictation exercises, waste of, 138-140 
Discipline, 53, 54, 59-61; indirect, causes contributing to, 62-82; important 

maxims of, 125-127; firmness at the start in, 401; problem of, as seen by 

the novice, 138, 395-404 
Disciplinary, control, types of, 68, 94-104; education, 8, 31, 138, 206, 208, 

209, 213, 276; problems, 83-94; values, 337-339 
Discussion of faults with pupils, 94-97, 106 
Dishonesty, 30, 93, 94, 100, loi, no, in, 117, 118, 123, 124 
Dismissal from class as a form of punishment, in, 118, 119 
Dramatization as a form of illustration, 120, 260-262 
Drill, 141, 145; its value, 177-181; economy in, 199-223; maxims of, 221-223; 



444 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 

in concert, 218; waste in oral, 216-219; character of individual drill, 213, 
222, 411; groups, 215, 216 
Drilling, the few at the expense of the many, 216, 222; for eflSciency, 408 

Egoistic pupil, the, 88, 89 

Elimination of high school pupils, 38, 39 

End spurt, the, 376 

Errors, of pupils, 152-154, 159, 216, 373, 408, 411, 412; method of correction, 

135-137, 270, 271 
Evening courses, 15 
Excess activity in learning, 191-193 
Experience in teaching, 45, 50, 53, 54 

Facts, basal to thinking, 309 

Fatigue, mental, 142-145 

Five Formal Steps of instruction in high school teaching, 295-302, 349, 350 

Gang spirit, the, 91 

Generalization, essential to thinking, 298 

Giggling, 89 

Growth of the high school, 4 

Guessing in science, 308 

Gymnasium, the, 2, 60, 233, 260 

Habit, 73; specific nature of, 207, 208, 222; propensity of, 73; proper se- 
quence in, 204; elimination of unnecessary elements in, 205 

Habit-formation, laws of, 181, 182; attention in initial stages of, 204 

Habits, hierarchy of, 181 

Handwriting, scales of, 158 

Harvard-Newton Scale, the, 160, 161 

High standards of school work, 60 

Hillegas scale, the, 160, 161 

Home study, unsatisfactory, 361-363 

Home-work, 16, 166 

Hygiene, 326; mental, 146; of the pupil, 23, 24, 142; of the classroom, 130, 
373, 40s, 406 

Ideal teacher, the, 57, 58 

Illustration, nature and scope of, 244-249, 411; graphic, 74, 77, 78, 194, 268; 
of general principles, 411; as a means of arousing interest, 77; through 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 445 

analogy, 271; through bad examples, 270, 271; through contrast, 271; 

through example, 269; through graphs, 268, 269; through models, charts, 

maps, diagrams, etc., 267; through imagery, 246-248, 271; of the past by 

the present, 248, 413 
Illustrations, examples of, 417, 421, 425, 428, 429 
Illustrative materials, 403, 404, 407 
Imagination as a method of illustration, 411 
Improvability, limits of, 209-213, 222 
Impudence, 112, 118 
Individual aid, 411 
Individuals, knowledge of, 380, 381 
Induction, as a form of reasoning, 289-293; and deduction compared, 288; 

in English grammar, 435; examples of, 419, 420 
Inductive, development lesson, 275; process, the, limitations of, 302-304; 

and deductive processes, limitation of, 308, 309 
Industrial eflSciency, 1 29-131 
Insolence, 86, 113 
Instinct, migratory, 26; sex, 25, 26; gregarious, 27, 28, 121, 123; property, 73; 

rivalry, 73; manipulation, 74; hoarding and collecting, 75, 115; of satisfy- 

ingness of mental control, 73; of workmanship, 73 
Instinctive tendehcies, appeal to, 409 
Instructional skill, 52, 53 
Interest, and instinctive tendencies, 72-75; in relation to work, 71, 72; 

fundamental laws of, 76-80; measurement of, 164, 165; and effort, 178; 

fundamental misconceptions in regard to the nature of, 69-72; initial, in 

learning, 202; in school subjects, 26, 27, 31, 34 
Interests of pupils; knowledge of essential, 357 
Isolation of offending pupil, 120-122 

Junior College, 17, 18 

Junior High School, 16, 17) 156 

Keeping the pupil after school, 116, 117 
Knowledge of results in learning, 159, 187, 188 

Lecture method, the, 224 

Lesson-hearing, 136-13S, 168-172, 175, 235, 360, 381, 407, 408, 412 

Lesson-plan, the, 227, 398, 406; prerequisites of, 356-359; essentials of, 334, 

335 
Local environment in relation to instruction, 314 



446 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 

Loyalty, 28, 30, 57 
Lysee, 2, 42, 60, 233 

Maps, 133, 246, 267-269, 356 

Marks, 39, 75, 148, 155-165, i75, 409 

Memorizing ideas, 379 

Method, of instruction, related to aim, 353, 354; of discovery, 292 

Methods of instruction, essentials of, 351-355; as seen by the novice, 396- 

399; examples of in lesson-plans, 415-420, 422-428, 430-438 
Mischievous pupil, the, 8g 
"Model" high schools, 47 
Moral and religious interests, 30 
Motivation of work, 59, 60, 75, 98, 99, 162, 374>,376, 407> 409 

t 
Native ability of teacher, 45, 51 
Normal courses, 12 
Normal Colleges, 46 
Note-taking, 68, 220, 228-230, 380 

Objectives, 156, 164, 176, 208, 221, 276, 296, 311, 320, 331, 335-337, 344, 

346, 347, 350, 353, 356, 377- (See also Aims.) 
Objects, cautions to be observed in their use, 254-256 
Object-teaching as a method of instruction, 250-254 
Observation, inaccuracy of, 252, 253 
Oral, drill, 186, 214, 216-219, 3i4> 3^5; instruction, 224-234 
Outline, the, in history teaching, 286 
Outlines, an aid to study, 378, 379 
Over-zealous pupil, the, 87, 88 

Particulars in relation to general principles, 283, 288, 296, 379, 380 

Part-time courses, 14, 15 

Perception cards, 430, 431 

Personality of the teacher, 53, 81, 82, 85, 86, 399, 412 

Physical changes during adolescence, 23, 24 

Pictures, as a form of illustration, 254, 255, 265, 266 

Pleasurable consequences in learning, 183-187 

Practical, motives, 32, 212, 222, 299, 409; values, 78-80, 138, 213, 263, 270, 

300,336,338-340,412 
Practice in learning, 221 
Practice-teaching, 47, 48 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 447 

Vreparation, of the mind of the learner, 252, 254, 295; of the teiCcher, 41-45, 

51, 53, 233. 234, 357, 358, 397, 398 
Private secondary schools in America, 5 

Problem, attitude, the, 325; questions, 282, 414; stating, 32, $s, 34, 281, 282 
Professional ideals, 56, 57 
Projects, 358 

Prompt beginning of work, 62, 375, 378, 379, 406 
Psychological vs. logical order in teaching, 76, 221, 222 
Public Schools of England, 2 
Punishment, kinds of, no, in, 1 16-124; natural and artificial compared, 

106-113; double function of, 114, 115 

Qualities of merit in teachers, 52-58 

Question, the, as a test for knowledge, 310, 311; the multiple, 323 

Questioning, 65, 66, 68, 84, 103, 225; function of, 310-319; hurried, 324; 
faults in, 310-330, 407; stimulates thought, 316-319; as a means of em- 
phasis, 314, 315; as a method of class control, 65 

Questions, essentials of, 330-333; an essential part of the lesson-plan, 355; 
repeated and rephrased, 321-323, 407; indefinite, 324-327, 407; pumping, 
329, 330, 407; superficial, 329; leading and suggestive, 327; yes and no, 
327, 328; tempo of, 330; poorly phrased, 320, 321; by pupils, 148; ad- 
dressed to the class, 137, 315, 407 

Rapid-fire questions, 319, 320, 324, 408 

Rebellious pupil, the, 90-93 

Recall in learning, s-j-j, ^yS 

Recapitulation Theory, 115 

Reading, silent, 66, 242 

Reading interests, 33, 34 

Recitation, the, purpose of, 381 

Reeducation, 188, 189 

Removal of privileges, 1 19, 1 20 

Repetition in learning, 182-187, 210 

Reproof, 122-124, 409 

Rest periods, 143, 144 

Results, statement of in lesson-plan, 355, 356 

Review, 334, 335, 375, 377, 403 

Reviews, 154, 155 

Rivalry, 73, 75, 409 

Routing of materials and pupils, 131-133 

Rules of conduct, 109, no 



448 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 

Salaries of high school teachers, 41, 48, 49, 50, 51 

Sarcasm, 85, 1 11, 124 

Scales to measure school attainments, 158-165 

Schools of Education, 47 

Scolding pupils, 122 

Seating of pupils, 29, 84, 131, 402, 405 

Secondary schools in Europe, 2, 3, 4; and America compared, 1-4 

Secondary teachers in Europe, 42, 43 

Self-activity, 363, 365; stimulated by questioning, 310; the basis of learning, 

79 

Sex-instruction, 25, 26 

Size of high schools, 13, 14 

Skill, pleasure in the exercise of, 72-74 

Social status of high school pupils, 36, 37 

Social tendencies, 28 

Socratic Method, the, 330 

Specialization of high school teachers, 43, 44 

Spelling, drill in, 212, 215, 216 

Stubbornness, 86, 95 

Student government, 123 

Study habits necessary, 362 

Study questions, 241 

Subject-matter, knowledge of, 398 

Success of teachers, causes of, 50-58 

Superior pupil, the, 211, 329, 373 

Supervised study, 172, 198, 223, 240, 241, 284, 354, 408; reasons for, 361-364; 
favorable results of, 364; objections to, 364-368; in relation to self- 
activity, 365; forms of, 368-371; in relation to the school day, 367; in rela- 
tion to school-rooms, 368; expense of, 366, 367; in relation to the teacher's 
time, 365; purpose of, s7i-2>73 

Sympathetic understanding of pupils, 81, 82 

Tale-bearing, 30 

Teachers' College, Columbia University, 18 (note), 46 

Technique of learning, 373-380 

Telling method, faults of, 227, 228 

Tests, variety in, 173-175 

Testing for knowledge and skill, 152-154; reasons for, 151-156; purpose of, 

408 
Text-books, merits and faults of, 227, 228, 231-235; use of by teachers, 

236, 237 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 449 

Thinking, 179; transfer of training in, 275, 276 

Thought, an aid to memory, 274; gives meaning to facts, 275; furnishes 
methods of procedure, 275; requires active attention, 283; requires selec- 
tion and analysis, 284; based on understanding of the problem involved, 
280, 281; based on knowledge, 279, 280; stimulated by a genuine difficulty, 
277,278 

Thought questions, 279, 303, 316-319, 329-332> 4o8 

Thought process, essential elements in, 277 

Thought stimulation, reasons for, 274-276 

Trade Schools, 3 (note), 6, 7 

Trial and error, restricting the field of, 193-198 

Truancy, 91, 92 

Unprepared lesson, the, 335, 369, 370 

Vicious pupil, the, 93, 106 

Vocational education (also Pre-vocational and Semi- vocational), 6-15, 27, 

147, 212 
Vocational, guidance, 156; interest, 31, 32, 409 
Voice, proper quality of, 230, 231 
Vorschule of Germany, 2 

Waste, elimination, 128-147; causes of, 129-138; in oral instruction, 227; 
in note-taking, 229; in rambling comments, 64, 226; in oral drill, 315; in 
questioning, 315, 407; in study, 362, 363; in beginning work, 375; in finish- 
ing work, 376; in class-room, 406, 407 

Wasteful methods of learning, 199, 216-219 

Whole method of study, 66, 377 

Work in school, attitude of pupils and parents toward, 60 

Work, as a disciplinary measure, 402 

Written quiz, 65, 67, 68, 138, 139, 140, 141, 155, 171, 172, 403; superior to 
oral quiz, 327 

Written vs. oral tests, 166, 167, 176, 326 

Written work, 65, 68, 140, 403; exercises, 316; as a method of class control, 65 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION 

Agriculture, 75, 232 

Algebra, 65, 141, 153, 158, 163, 165, 187, 190, 193, 197, 201-203, 208, 211, 
212, 215, 241, 256, 269, 270, 271, 274, 278-281, 284, 285, 29s, 304, 341, 

343-345, 348, 354, 355, 35^, 374, 377 
Art, 35 

^-Biology, 25, 26, 74, 76, 232, 233, 252, 266, 280, 358 

Botany, 258, 307, 314, 325 

Chemistry, 78, 104, 182, 204, 232, 241, 246, 252, 256, 258, 263, 276, 280, 

285, 295, 304, 307, 341, 342, 346, 347, 350, 358 
Civics, 32, 76, 232, 248, 256, 265, 266, 268, 358 
Commercial Arithmetic, 137, 138 
Commercial Courses, 11, 12, 27, 267, 286, 338 
Commerce, 266 

Current Events, 29, 148, 220, 323 
Domestic Arts, 9, 10, 74, 75, 77, 261-263, 287, 299, 338 
Economics, 266, 268, 358 
"^ngUsh Composition, 32, 35, 68, 76, 77, 132, 135, 139, 141, 145, 154. 158,^50^- 

160, 161, 163, 182, 202, 206-208, 229, 237, 238, 240, 249, 267, 343, 345, 350, 

375 ; oral, 217-220, 253 
English Expression, 195, 201, 205, 206, 210, 211, 213-215, 217-220, 270, 271, 

306, 358, 413 
English Grammar, 433-435 
English Literature, 25, 27, 32, 34, 35, 66, 71, 72, 78, 120, 152, 163, 164, 165, 

170, 173, 228, 231, 238, 240, 241, 245, 246, 247, 260-262, 265, 266, 282, 283, 

286, 289-291, 294, 296, 299, 306, 309, 311, 312, 319, 320, 324-328, 331, 
336, 337-339, 342, 343, 345-347, 352, 353, 358, 369, 377, 4i3, 426-429 

Foreign Language, 27, 66, 76, 135, 152, 161, 167, 168, 186, 200-202, 204, 
205, 209, 213, 215, 217, 218, 221, 222, 240, 241, 269, 283, 285, 299, 304, 
306, 309, 315, 317, 319, 328, 337, 338, 369, 372, 374, 375, 377; direct 
method, 27, 77, 193-195, 201, 206, 324, 358, 359, 413, 435-439- (See also 
French, German, Latin, etc.) 

French, 32, 166, 173, 193, 194, 204, 206, 211, 336, 337, 3^12, 359 

Geography, 232, 251, 266 

Geology, 251 ^ 

450 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION 45 1 

Geometry, 34, 74, 78, 136, 13?', 140, 144, 152, 167, 171, 182, 204, 208, 241, 
255, 256, 259, 260, 266, 270, 274-276, 278-281, 285, 300, 301, 305, 325, 
343-347, 349, 358, 359, 364, 372, 375, 377, 403, 404, 413 

German, 32, 140, 173, 201, 204, 206, 241, 275, 296, 297, 342, 343, 345, 350, 

359, 435-439 
Greek, 8, 70, 72 
History, 25, 27, 32, (>(>, 74, 78, 98, 99, io3, 138, 140, 141, 148, 152, i53, 163, 

164, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 182, 189, 196, 204, 206, 211, 215, 225-227, 

237, 238-241, 242, 246-248, 265-267, 271-273, 276, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 

285, 286, 295, 299, 301, 302, 303, 305, 306, 309, 312-314, 317, 324, 325, 326, 

327, 328, 2>3^, 2Z^, ZZ7, Z2>^, 339, 341-346, 348, 35i, ZS3y 354, 358, 369, 372, 

374, 377, 378, 413, 414-417 
Laboratory Instruction and Technique, 33, 34, 62,, 64, 132, 133, 196, 197, 

208, 241, 257, 262, 263, 285, 337, 356, 358 
Latin, 32, 65, 135, 165, 169, 171, 174, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 210, 270, 271, 

275, 283, 295, 306, 318, 319, 341, 342, 344, 345, 347, 35i, 359, Zio, 429-433 
Manual Arts, 8, 9, 10, 27, 74, 75, 76, 77, 161, 164, 173, 185, 194, 196, 202, 

208, 210, 259, 261-263, 287, 299, 338, 339, 358 
Mathematics, 32, 66, 78, 135, 161, 209, 210, 221, 240, 241, 268, 291, 299, 309, 

329, 338, 339, 358, 359, Z12, 413- (See also Algebra, Geometry, etc.) 
Physics, 63, 64, 75, 86, 166, 171, 174, 194, 209, 232, 252, 256-259, 261, 263, 

264, 270, 272, 280, 281, 285, 296, 300, 304, 305, 307, 322, 323, 325, 337, 

339, 341-344, 351, 352, 418-421 
Physiology, 259, 307, 358 
Science, 27, 32, 2,3, 66, 76, 78, 164, 168, 173, 211, 240, 241, 252, 257, 263, 265, 

268, 283, 285, 291, 299, 309, 314, 328, 336, 338, 346, 413; general science, 

70, 139, 232, 314, 342, 346, 359; social science, 232, 246, 248, 256, 282. 

(See also Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc.) 
Spanish, 32, 204 

Stenography, 72, 134, 161, 174, 202, 203, 206, 212, 271, 286, 315 
Trigonometry, 270 



Printed in the United States of America 



